EXHIBIT C FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE.PDF

Exhibit C
A Publication of the
National Wildfire
Coordinating Group Industrial
Operations
Fire Prevention
Guide
PMS 462 September 1999


Industrial Operations Fire
Prevention Guide
PMS 462 September 1999
Sponsored for NWCG publication by the NWCG Fire Education Working Team, September 1999.
This publication is available online at http://www.nwcg.gov

Preface
This guide contains standards and practices which have been found
effective in preventing wildfires caused by various types of industrial
operations when conducted on forest, range or watershed lands. These
standards and practices are based upon studies and the experience of fire
agency and operating company personnel. Many have become
requirements by law, regulation or contract clause over the years. The
standards are to be considered as minimums and the various practices are
offered as suggestions and examples of what has been tried and found
successful in various situations. There is opportunity for technology
transfer as some industries have developed equipment and techniques as
yet unknown and untried by other industries. On-the-ground conditions
may indicate the need for practices beyond the minimum legal
requirements and will indicate which practices are most applicable in a
given situation.
It is expected that all personnel who supervise or inspect industrial
operations in forest, range and watershed areas, or who prescribe hazard
reduction work or other fire prevention measures, will be thoroughly
familiar with the contents of this guide.
This guide was developed as a cooperative undertaking by the USDA
Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, and the California
Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CDF) and the National
Wildfire Coordinating Group.
NWCG Wildfire Prevention Guide development:
• Conducting School Programs (1996)
• Event Management (1996)
• Wildfire Prevention Marketing (1996)
• Wildfire Prevention and the Media (1998)
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Preface - i

• Wildfire Prevention Strategies (1998)
• Effective Wildfire Prevention Patrol (1998)
• Recreation Area Fire Prevention (1999)
• Fire Communication and Education (1999)
• Fire Education Exhibits and Displays (1999)
• Industrial Operations Fire Prevention Guide (1999)
• Fire Prevention Education Cooperative Programs and
Partnerships (1999)
Preface - ii INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

Contents
1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................. 1
2.0 Objective and Responsibility ....................................................................... 3
3.0 Operating Areas ........................................................................................... 7
4.0 Fire Plans ................................................................................................... 11
4.1 Fire Plan Outline ...................................................................... 13
5.0 Inspection and Safety ................................................................................. 25
6.0 Maintenance, Repair and Servicing ........................................................... 39
7.0 Explosives .................................................................................................. 45
8.0 Motor Vehicle Operation and Maintenance ............................................... 49
9.0 Use of Fire.................................................................................................. 55
10.0 Timber Harvesting ..................................................................................... 61
11.0 Construction and Surface Mining .............................................................. 77
12.0 Well Drilling and Operating ...................................................................... 85
13.0 Commercial Transportation and Storage ................................................... 87
14.0 Product Processing and Handling .............................................................. 93
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Contents - iii


1.0 Introduction
Industrial operations of various kinds in the forests, rangelands and watersheds
have been an integral and important part of the economy of this country since
colonial times. Logging and mining have always been with us. In the past 100
years, drilling and operating wells for petroleum and natural gas have assumed
major importance. In the past 50 years the development of powerful, high-capacity,
earth-moving equipment has accelerated dam and mountain freeway construction
and large-scale, open-pit mining. During the past 25 years, large-scale housing
development has accelerated and moved into wildlands and leveling of land for
agriculture and construction of canals and pipelines for water distribution has
moved from the valleys into the foothills and mountains necessitating the use of
heavy earth-moving and construction equipment. Activities that have taken place
during the past years include construction, drilling and operating geothermal steam
wells and power plants, construction of nuclear power plants, and oil, gas and
mineral exploration operations.
Historically, these activities have not resulted in an unusual number of wildfires
compared to other causes. However, several large fires have been caused by
operation of machinery. This has led to aggressive fire prevention programs by fire
protection agencies and industry in order to reduce fire losses and save money. The
beneficial results from this effort can be easily and quickly negated by a careless
act or negligence. Knowledge and constant practice of fire safe activities are
necessary to avoid unacceptable fire loss.
Many aspects of machine use may start vegetation fires. These include exhaust
sparks, hot exhaust manifolds and pipes, fuel leaks, overheating, track and blade
sparks, short circuits, brakes, belts and pulleys, accumulated debris, and broken
hydraulic line spilling on hot engine parts.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Introduction - 1

Burning of natural debris and vegetation for land management purposes is
becoming more common. The specific purposes may include fire hazard reduction,
seed bed or planting site preparation, land clearing prior to construction, mining or
drilling, etc. In any event, past wildland suppression policies have led to an
unnaturally heavy vegetative fuel loading in many cases, thus making some
burning operations quite hazardous. Unless conducted under properly prescribed
and controlled conditions, such burning can escape and become a wildfire. If well
done, it cannot only produce the desired land management purpose, but also reduce
the likelihood and severity of future wildfires.
2 - Introduction INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

2.0 Objective and Responsibility
I. OBJECTIVE
The basic objective of this guide is to prevent uncontrolled fires, minimize loss of
life, property and natural/cultural resources and the disruption of commercial
operations as a result of wildfires.
II. RESPONSIBILITY
A. Cooperation
The most effective means of attaining the above objective is a
cooperative approach. The ways in which cooperation can be
implemented can include, but certainly are not limited to, joint
training sessions, joint inspections, notification of critical fire weather,
sharing of research and other information, supplemental fire detection
and coordinated communications.
Fire protection agencies can no longer afford to maintain the
personnel and equipment required to prevent all seriously damaging
fires. It is, therefore, necessary for industry to assume some of the
burden created by their activities. In addition, industry may be liable
for damages resulting from fires caused by their operations.
Joint reviews provide excellent on-the-job training and promote
mutual understanding and trust. It is easier to discuss and explain a
situation or condition while looking at it.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Objective and Responsibility - 3

B. Fire Danger
Wildland fire agencies, in cooperation with the National Weather
Service, have a system for keeping informed of fire weather
conditions, including critical situations. While this information is
available on request to anyone needing it, it is computed for fairly
large areas. Many operators want weather information more specific
and localized to their own operating areas. They sometimes establish
and operate their own weather stations. Agencies and operators
benefit from the other's information. Also, managers of other types of
industrial operations can make arrangements to obtain useful weather
information from these sources, including the World Wide Web.
C. Responsibilities For Compliance
Industry has both legal and management responsibilities for fire safety
in their operating areas. Fire protection agencies are responsible for
assuring that the companies are in compliance with laws and
regulations. The reasons for inspections may differ. Joint inspections
are desirable and helpful, but may not always be practical.
D. Operating Company
Operating companies are responsible for the fire safety and
compliance with the appropriate laws and regulations. They must
determine what work is necessary to comply with laws, regulations
and contract requirements, to prevent fires and to ensure safe and
efficient progress of their operation. They also need to know whether
or not the work has been accomplished and to what standards.
4 – Objective and Responsibility INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

E. Protection Agency
The protection agencies' inspection responsibilities are primarily
regulatory. They are expected to make fire prevention inspections of
operating areas in accordance with agency policy. The protection
agency should notify the company and take appropriate enforcement
action when warranted. Agency investigations will also be conducted
to determine the causes of fires that do occur.
F. Correction Of Violations
Correction of violations and risk and hazard reduction measures are
generally the responsibility of the operating companies. The
companies have an obligation to make their employees and
contractors aware of requirements and to police themselves. Fire
agency personnel should mitigate violations and report ineffective or
unsafe fire prevention practices to the company.
G. Law Enforcement
Wildland fire protection agencies are charged with the responsibility
of enforcing certain fire prevention laws and regulations. These
agencies may initiate administrative, civil, criminal or injunctive
actions to secure compliance with laws and ordinances.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Objective and Responsibility - 5

Notes
6 – Notes INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

3.0 Operating Areas
Every industrial operation has an area on which its activities are conducted. Some
of these areas, such as mines, are in fixed locations for long periods of time.
Others, such as logging and construction, are mobile and transitory, remaining in
one location for only a few weeks or months. For some, such as petroleum and
steam wells, the nature of the activity and of the fire problem changes over time
(drilling versus pumping and servicing). In all cases the access, for fire prevention
purposes, routes between the scene of actual industrial operations and public roads
are considered part of the operating area.
Operators may be adversely affected by fires starting outside or inside their
operating area, and thus have considerable interest in preventing and suppressing
such fires. Some fires, such as "Act of God" (lightning), can be expected to start
either on or in the vicinity of any operating area. The operator has a responsibility
to anticipate and plan for these and to take necessary action when they occur.
Some general fire precautions can apply equally to all types of industrial operating
areas. These have been set forth in federal, state, and local regulations and contract
requirements for the timber harvesting industry. They can be equally valid for
mining, construction or drilling operations.
I. HAZARD ABATEMENT
This is a matter of recognizing, eliminating or reducing fire hazards to an
acceptable level. Fire acceleration hazards that contribute most to increasing
fire spread and intensity are slash, snags, spilled petroleum products and
piles of any kind of flammables.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Operating Areas - 7

Ignitable hazards should be removed from all high risk areas. These areas
include, but are not restricted to: refueling areas; locations of stationary or
portable engines: welding, cutting or grinding operations; and personnel
assembly areas where smoking and/or lunch or warming fires are allowed.
They should be protected by creating clearings where all flammables have
been removed. The width or radius of the clearing, in order to be effective,
will vary with the nature and size by the risk from l 0 to 25 feet. Under
certain special high-risk situations, 50 feet or more should be considered.
Where such clearances are needed, they must not only be initially made, but
also maintained.
General cleanliness of the operating area should extend to all machinery,
structures and equipment. Machines should be kept free of trash and oil and
free of slash debris and vegetative matter accumulation especially in the
belly pan area on bulldozers. Structures should have regularly emptied
receptacles for papers and other debris. Storage and servicing areas should
not be allowed to accumulate papers, oily rags, and other waste materials.
II. SMOKING
In the past, smoking has been the reported cause of a high proportion of
wildland fires (20%-40%) but in recent years, this statistic has changed
markedly. The most recent published figures show a variation from 6% to
16% of fires caused by smoking, averaging about 11%. There are several
reasons for this change. One is better fire-cause investigation and reporting.
Another is the emphasis placed by Smokey Bear and other fire prevention
campaigns on this cause. Still another is the restriction placed on smoking by
many landowners and operators, including the public.
Still, 11% represents several thousand fires nationwide each year. It can be
reduced if every industrial operator should adopt and enforces rules relating
to smoking for the operating area. Most effective, of course, are the
complete prohibitions such as those already in effect in some companies.
8 – Operating Areas INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

Other measures include: prohibition at certain
times, usually based on fire danger rating;
prohibition except in certain designated areas;
requiring the smoker to find or make an area
cleared of all flammable material; etc.
Prohibition of smoking except in designated
areas which can be made and maintained safe for this purpose is the course
recommended for those companies which do not desire to totally prohibit
smoking. At the very minimum, smoking should not be allowed except in an
area cleared to mineral soil, or other nonflammable base, with a minimum
diameter of three feet.
It is illegal to discard any burning tobacco products or matches from a
moving vehicle. On public roads, state and federal officers and local
authorities enforce this law. On private roads and operating areas, company
rules should prohibit this practice and supervisors should enforce it. During
critical fire periods, smoking should be prohibited.
III. LUNCH AND WARMING FIRES
Lunch and warming fires can be campfires in an industrial area rather than a
recreational setting. Unless built, maintained and extinguished properly, they
are as dangerous in one location as the other. Records indicate that a
significant number of lunch and warming fires escape and become wildfires.
By far the most common reason for these escapes is violation of one or more
of the well-known and long­ recognized safety rules for such fires.
Lunch or warming fires should never be built without first providing a
clearing to bare mineral soil, or other nonflammable base, for a minimum
distance of 10 feet in all directions from the expected perimeter of the fire.
The fire should not be permitted to become any larger than actually needed
to cook or provide warmth. The fire should never be left unattended until it
is totally extinguished. Firefighting tools, especially a long-handled, round-
point shovel, should be readily available in the immediate vicinity at all
times the fire is burning or glowing. Extinguishment must be thorough and
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Operating Areas - 9

complete, preferably with water and checked by
ungloved hand. One person, ideally a supervisor,
should be made responsible and held accountable for
the safety of the fire. A fire patrol/fire watch, or other
specifically assigned individual, should check all
such fire sites not less than one hour, nor more than
two hours, after the fire is terminated. Industry is
often held liable for damage resulting from these unextinguished fires.
10 – Operating Areas INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

4.0 Fire Plans
Fire plans are prepared by industrial operators, a copy of which should be filed
with the responsible fire protection agency. The plans set forth the staff and
equipment that can be used for fighting fire, the person to be contacted and means
of contact, the locations and extent of the operating area and other pertinent data.
Each operating company should prepare its own fire plan after consulting with the
local fire protection agency. The resulting plan becomes a useful tool for the
operator and the agency. This is important because a fire plan is not likely to be
useful in achieving its purpose without the personal commitment to fire safety of
the owner or general manager of the operation.
Items included in a fire plan are discussed in this section. Certain matters related to
fire protection, but not usually specifically set forth in the fire plan are covered at
the end of the section.
The Fire Plan should cover as a minimum:
• Scope or Purpose
• Responsibilities
• Fire Tools and Equipment
• General Regulations
• Emergency Measures
• Detection System
• Personnel and Equipment
• Maps
• Fire Protection Cooperatives
• Public-Private Meetings
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Fire Plans - 11

Notes
12 – Notes INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

4.1 Fire Plan Outline
I. SCOPE
Define the scope of the project fire plan area. This should include all
information regarding the impact of the activity, including types of activity,
length of operations, operating standards, etc.
II. RESPONSIBILITIES
A. Operating Company
The operating companies must determine what work needs to be done
in order to comply with laws, regulations and contract requirements,
to prevent fires and to ensure safe and efficient progress of their
operation.
B. Protection Agency
The protection agency makes fire prevention inspections of operating
areas as often as their other duties and budgets will reasonably allow.
They ensure that operating companies are complying with laws,
regulations and contract provisions. The protection agency should
notify the company of its findings even when the inspection has been
conducted jointly with company representatives. Appropriate
enforcement action is taken when warranted by the findings. Agency
investigations will also be made to determine the causes of fires that
do occur.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Fire Plan Outline - 13

III. FIRE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
A. Tools reserved for firefighting purposes only, at certain locations may
be required. These should be considered only as legal minimums.
Many logging and construction contracts require more. Some
operators may provide additional tools. Special requirements are
contained in various rules and regulations. Below is a composite
listing of locations and tools recommended at those locations. Local
laws and rules should be checked.
Location Recommended Tool(s)
Motor, torch, grinder, etc. Shovel, backpump
Log landing, construction field Fire toolbox with enough tools to
office or service area, mine equip each employee, plus
headquarters, etc. chain saw and tractor
headlights
Motor vehicle, tractor, skidder, Shovel, axe, approved fire
scraper, etc. extinguisher
Portable power tool (including Shovel, approved fire
chain saw, tamper, etc.) extinguisher
Cable block Shovel, backpump or fire
extinguisher
Yarder, loader, crane, service (2) 10 lb. fire extinguisher fire
truck, etc. suppression system
Helicopter refueling area (2) 10 lb. fire extinguisher fire
suppression system
Choker setter Shovel
14 – Fire Plan Outline INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

Mechanized harvesting equipment (2) 10 lb. fire extinguishers or self
(chippers, bunchers, etc.) extinguishing fire suppression
powered by internal system
combustion engines
The fire plan should set forth the number and types of firefighting
tools provided, their locations, and the person designated as
responsible for ensuring their presence and operating condition.
Personnel should be trained in their use.
B. Equipment
All firefighting equipment under the operator's control should be
listed in the fire plan. The specially designed equipment (e.g., fire
trucks, water trailers with pumps and hose) are rather obvious.
Adapted equipment may not be so obvious to everyone. Bulldozers
and chain saws can be used on almost any wildland fire. Road-
watering tank trucks are not as useful as they might seem unless
equipped with pumps and hose. In areas where trees, heavy slash and
surface rocks are not prevalent and the terrain is not steep, motor
graders are excellent firefighting machines. These are but a few
examples. In preparing this section of the fire plan, an operator should
seek the advice of fire protection agency personnel.
In addition to firefighting equipment, the fire plan should list support
equipment. This category would include, but not be restricted to:
fueling and lubricating vehicles, transport vehicles (e.g., low beds,
buses, flat beds), communications links (e.g., radio-equipped vehicles,
portable radios, radio-telephones), portable electric generators, etc.
All equipment listed should be designated as "with operator" or
without operator." The location and means of contacting, as well as
other pertinent and useful information should also be listed.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Fire Plan Outline - 15

IV. GENERAL REGULATIONS
The fire plan should also include all of the pertinent information about:
A. State laws, regulations, and local ordinances
B. Permits required
C. Regulations for burning
D. Smoking and fire rules
E. Storage and parking areas
V. EMERGENCY MEASURES
Curtailment of Activities
It is seldom necessary to completely shut down industrial operations in the
wildlands during fire season.
Normal operations should not continue when fuel and weather conditions get
into the "very high" and extreme" ranges. The fire plan should set forth those
high-risk activities which will be curtailed or stopped entirely at various
levels of fire danger. This is common practice with large timber operators
and public utilities. It should be incorporated into all industrial operation fire
plans.
Some of the specific activities which should be considered for curtailment
include: smoking, open fires, welding and cutting, blasting, and use of power
driven machinery. Some that are normally safe to continue are servicing of
equipment, watering roads, loading trucks, etc.
16 – Fire Plan Outline INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

There are several systems of
determining when and where such
curtailments should take place, such as
fire danger adjective ratings (e.g., high,
very high, or extreme), some on codes
indicated by numbers (e.g., activity
level, burning index, fire load index, and
drought index), some on special
conditions. Some are based on predicted conditions, others on existing
observed conditions. In most cases, the information is obtained from the
protection agency, in others the operator establishes the weather monitoring
system.
The most technically correct system is the National Fire Danger Rating
System. It is based on weather, fuel and topography factors at the site in
question (or a nearby representative station), and observations and
predictions of the Fire Weather Forecasters of the National Weather Service.
The system was developed through computer correlations and analysis of the
factors affecting the ignition and burning of actual fires. Most wildland fire
protection agencies have computer terminal access to this system. Private
operators can get the information from the agencies.
No matter what fire danger rating system is used, it should be specified in
the fire plan along with the types of operations to be regulated by it and the
levels at which the regulations will become effective.
VI. DETECTION SYSTEM
The fire plan should also set forth how the operator and his employees will
detect and report wildfires originating on or near the operating area to the
protection agency. A system to be used for contacting the operator's
employees in case of emergency must also be detailed in the plan. Fire
detection can be accomplished in several ways. No single method is fail-
safe, so the plan should incorporate two or more. The same can be said for
alarm or communication systems.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Fire Plan Outline - 17

Certain laws, regulations and contract
provisions require a fire patrol/fire watch
services at designated times and places
(e.g., after daily logging operations, after
blasting). Some of the larger operations
may require full-time employees for this
purpose. Smaller operators are often able
to meet their legal and contract responsibilities by assigning employees hired
basically for other duties to this activity at the times and places required.
This usually requires either an offset work shift or the payment of overtime.
In any event, during the time any person is performing as a fire patrol/fire
watch they must not have any other assigned duties nor be allowed to engage
in any activities which might divert their attention.
Since fire patrols or watchmen are often alone on an operating area after all
other workers have left for the day, it is very important that they be provided
with effective and reliable means of communication. This is not only
necessary for fire reporting purposes, but also for personal safety. Since fire
patrols or watchmen usually must be mobile, the best and most common way
is to provide them with radio­ equipped vehicles reporting to a base station
or cell phones if within a coverage area.
Patrols should be made responsible not only for detecting and reporting
fires, but also for taking initial suppression action on any fires they discover.
Therefore, they should be physically fit, equipped with firefighting tools and
equipment and fully trained in the effective use of such tools and equipment.
Personal protective clothing is highly recommended for this type of work.
It is good insurance to assign other personnel additional duties as auxiliary
fire patrols. These people, who might be on the operating area outside of
normal working hours (e.g., equipment service personnel, security guards),
however, will not be accepted as substitutes for or in lieu of the patrol/fire
watch required by law or contract.
18 – Fire Plan Outline INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

Detection of fires can also be accomplished by fixed lookouts and aerial
patrols. Both systems are timber operators and timber landowners. Both are
adapted to broad area coverage, are rather expensive, and have blind spots
and certain times when they are not effective. Their best use, therefore, is as
supplemental or backup systems to the ground patrol. In most cases their
costs are borne cooperatively by multiple adjoining or intermingled owners
and operators or public protection agencies.
A relatively recent development for increasing the effectiveness of aerial
patrols is the infrared scanner. Originally developed for military purposes,
this equipment was adapted a few years ago by public agencies for wildfire
control and detection purposes. Timber operators and agency fire
management officers are using portable hand-held infrared detection
equipment for slash burning surveillance to reduce the cost of maintaining
holding crews and mop up crews and equipment. Such equipment is also
useful for detecting the presence of any other ignition source when smoke or
darkness makes other means of detection difficult or ineffective; however, it
will not work through atmospheric moisture (i.e., fog or clouds). Several
hand-held models are also now commercially available.
VII. STAFF AND EQUIPMENT
A. Person In Charge
Fire prevention or suppression can only be effective when organized.
Someone must be in charge and responsible in order to provide
direction to this effort. This can be the owner, logging boss,
construction superintendent, a person specifically hired as fire
supervisor, or anyone else who is readily available at all times and is
assigned the necessary authority to commit the resources of the
operator when and where needed. This person should not only be
named in the fire plan, but his/her identity and authority should be
made known to all employees, contractors and subcontractors. For
operations with more than a few employees and pieces of equipment,
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Fire Plan Outline - 19

an alternate and/or assistants should be designated. All of these people
should not only have the requisite authority, but also fire protection
training and experience in excess of the general run of employees so
they may effectively lead fire prevention and suppression activities.
In addition to naming the person in charge, alternate and assistants,
the fire plan should set forth positive means of contact, both at work
and off duty. Day and night telephone numbers are minimum
requirements. Radio frequencies received and transmitted on are
helpful. If direct contact by the protection agency dispatcher is not
possible or practical, the means of routing messages to the company
fire boss should be outlined. Currently, pagers and cell phones are
popular means of communication.
B. Staffing
Wildland fire suppression is an extremely labor-intensive undertaking.
A fire of more than a few acres in size, particularly in heavily
timbered areas, may require hundreds of firefighters days to suppress
and mop up. Fire protection agencies can no longer afford to keep
large numbers of persons needed to fight major fires on their payrolls.
Firefighting crews are often transported from across several states to
suppress large fires. Therefore, the fire plan needs to list the number
of people locally available by various skills, day or night, weekends,
etc. This allows for quick response by the operator's personnel to
assist the fire protection agency until sufficient help arrives to
completely suppress and mop up the wildfire. Many agencies utilize
private contract crews and engines to augment local resources. This
requires close coordination with fire protection agencies.
Except for persons who, by virtue of fire control training and
experience, are designated as crew leaders it is usually
20 – Fire Plan Outline INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

unnecessary to list employees and subcontractors by name in the fire
plan. However, particularly in timber country, certain skills (e.g.,
timber fallers, bulldozer operators, pump operators) could be more
critical than laborers. The special skills involved are those related to
firefighting and not to the primary activity of the operation. For
instance, operating a bulldozer to fight fire is quite different than
operating one to yard logs, build a road or excavate ore. With this in
mind, the number of personnel available should be listed by various
skills. Local OSHA requirements should be considered when
identifying personnel and resources available in the plan.
Availability does not remain
constant over time. A maximum
number will normally be available
during regular working hours.
Somewhat less can be expected to
respond at night. Even fewer will be
available on weekends and holidays.
Therefore, the fire plan should indicate expected availability in at least
the above categories. Several large timber operators maintain rotating
standby schedules, particularly for supervisory personnel, for
weekends and holidays.
Also, because of the extended duration of many wildland fires, the
need for and availability of relief personnel should be provided for in
the fire plan. Thus, the fire plan should provide at least two people for
each position: one for immediate response and one for relief on the
next operational period. This may not be necessary for laborers as
their relief may be transported in from a considerable distance;
however, for the operators of machinery it is quite important.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Fire Plan Outline - 21

C. Training
The employees of any company conducting operations in wildland
areas may be called upon to fight fire. These employees are expected
to have the basic skills required to do this effectively and safely.
Therefore, it is in the best interests of the company to provide
essential firefighting training.
Fire training for employees of any company will normally be tailored
to the particular needs of that group. Some may have had considerable
firefighting experience, others little or none. Some may use hand tools
every day, others never. Many who do use hand tools use them only
for a specific purpose and are unaware of ways in which they can be
used to fight fire. Most are not knowledgeable regarding the special
hazards involved in fighting wildland fire. Any such training should
include the following subjects plus any others deemed necessary for
the particular group:
1. Basic fire organization.
2. Safety equipment.
3. Introduction to fire behavior.
4. Sizeup and initial attack.
5. Hand-line construction principles and methods.
6. Use and maintenance of tools.
7. Ten standard firefighting orders.
8. Using water in suppression.
9. Mopup.
22 – Fire Plan Outline INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

10. Abandoning the fire.
11. Air support-safety.
12. Transportation.
13. Communications radio use-ground/air signals.
14. Outfitting oneself.
15. Locating fire.
16. Foot travel.
17. Survival tips.
18. First aid.
19. Personal protective Equipment.
VIII. MAPS
The map is an integral part of a complete
fire plan. It should be of sufficient scale
and accurate enough to be of use. Contours
are not necessary but should be provided if
possible. Main ridges and drainages should
be indicated. U.S.G.S. quadrangle maps
are good base maps. Ownership and
operating area boundaries should also be
shown. All roads, landings, equipment servicing areas, field offices, other
structures, and other significant features should also be indicated.
Reasonable accuracy of scale, distance, direction, etc., is important. G.I.S.
systems should be considered.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Fire Plan Outline - 23

IX. FIRE PROTECTION COOPERATIVES OR ASSOCIATIONS
The purpose of fire protection cooperatives or associations is to implement
and coordinate the use of industrial staffing and equipment to fight wildland
fires and to provide liaison between industrial and public fire control forces.
A cooperative may hire a forester-firefighter. This individual collects copies
of timber operator fire plans, attends industry-agency meetings, assists in
training and physical testing, assists agency dispatchers in ordering,
assigning and demobilizing industry forces during fires, etc.
X. PUBLIC-PRIVATE MEETINGS
Public agencies and industrial operators can be in supportive roles. It has
been found that coordination and understanding can be gained by meeting
once or twice a year to discuss mutual problems, plans and results. This
principle applies to all wildland industries.
The most productive meetings are those including middle and upper level
management personnel and fire protection specialists from both public
agencies and industrial operators. Specific problems should be addressed
and solutions agreed to. Spring or pre-fire season meetings are particularly
appropriate for planning fire control operations. Fall meetings are good for
reporting results, planning fire prevention activities and meeting budgeting
deadlines.
24 – Fire Plan Outline INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

5.0 Inspection and Safety
Industrial operations of any kind in the wildland are potential sources of wildfire.
As such, they require inspection to ensure protection of the operator, the public and
neighboring property owners. In addition to fire laws and regulations, such
operations are governed by many safety rules. It is important that personnel
required to make fire prevention inspections comply with these safety rules. Safety
rules are assigned to protect workers, not inspectors, and it is sometimes difficult to
make certain inspections and, at the same time, comply with all safety rules. For
their own welfare, inspectors must not violate safety rules. They should always
wear hard hats and other appropriate personal protective equipment. Avoid slick-
soled boots.
This section will discuss various types of inspection procedures, safety rules,
reporting procedures, legal actions which may result from inspections and methods
of identifying items inspected.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Inspection and Safety - 25

I. INSPECTION RESPONSIBILITIES
Industrial operation fire prevention inspections are made by both the operating
companies and the fire protection agencies. The reasons for and the timing of these
inspections may differ, but there are advantages to both parties by sometimes
making joint inspections.
A. Company Inspections
1. The responsibility for inspecting operating areas and equipment
for compliance with laws and regulations, maintenance of
uninterrupted production and avoidance of civil liability rests
exclusively with the operating companies. Fire protection
agencies primarily inspect for compliance with laws and
regulations. When equipment owned by one company is being
operated by another under a lease or rental agreement or when
work is being performed by a subcontractor, the ultimate
responsibility and liability may be established in the contract.
The operating company is the one which the protection agency
will normally deal with and hold responsible for compliance
with the law. It is the responsibility of the owner or
management personnel of each company to determine how,
when and by whom its inspections will be carried out.
2. It is hard to determine how often inspections should be made
because the sizes of companies and the types of operations vary
so widely. Each company must determine its own appropriate
inspection schedules. Some company rules establish inspection
schedules and procedures either more frequent or more
intensive than those required by federal or state laws and
regulations. A good inspection schedule is daily by operation
supervisors and every 10 days by fire prevention or safety
specialists. Fire danger conditions may be a determining factor
for frequency of inspections.
26 – Inspection and Safety INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

B. Protection Agency Inspections
Laws charge fire protection agencies with the responsibility for
protecting the public from the loss of life, property and resources by
fire. They are also charged with enforcing forest and fire laws. To
accomplish these missions they inspect industrial operations in order
to prevent wildland fires. Public fire protection agencies have a duty
to make known to operating companies those violations and defects
they observe during their inspections. Protection agency inspections
do not, however, relieve operating companies of the responsibility of
making their own inspections. Fires resulting from deficient
operations may result in a liability to the operator.
1. Fire agency inspections are generally of two types: routine and
fire emergency. Routine inspections will usually be general
surveys of operating areas and spot checks or sampling of
mechanical equipment. These may be original inspections or
compliance checks following prior notification of violations.
The inspector should make every effort not to interfere with
production.
2. Fire emergency inspections or investigations include point of
origin and ignition source determination, as well as
identification of the specific machine or person that provided
the source of ignition. This is not merely for the purpose of
providing data for statistical reports and fixing liability, but also
to release non-offending personnel and equipment back into
production as soon as possible and to help determine effective
fire prevention measures, including design changes if needed.
3. Most routine inspections can be adequately performed by visual
inspection. Inspectors should be equipped with such aids as Fire
Prevention Field Guides, tape measures, notebooks, cameras,
inspection stickers, "red tags" and copies of applicable laws,
regulations, contracts and agreements.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Inspection and Safety - 27

4. The results of any fire agency inspection should be properly
recorded. Each protection agency has its own forms and
procedures for this purpose. All violations should be recorded
according to agency procedure. Inspections may be recorded on
forms, memos, formal letters, etc. Regardless of the format of
the inspection report, a copy should be sent or given to the
company. Reports should be specific enough for the company
to act on them and for the courts to relate them to complaints or
other legal actions in the event such actions are filed.
5. Protection agency personnel may have occasion to observe
conditions on equipment or operating areas other than
violations of fire laws or regulations that may be dangerous, or
a violation may be observed that is outside the inspector's
jurisdiction. These conditions should be reported to the
company as soon as possible. If they have contributed to a fire,
or are likely to, they should be recorded and dealt with
immediately.
C. Joint Inspection
1. Joint inspections are for the purpose of acquainting both fire
protection agency and company personnel with potential
violations and other problems and conditions. They often result
in mutual agreement on methods of correcting problems. Joint
inspections are not always possible due to time commitments or
because of company or agency policy. They are, however,
encouraged to the extent possible. The joint inspection provides
an excellent opportunity for mutual understanding of the
problems facing both industry and the agency, as well as
training opportunities for both participants.
28 – Inspection and Safety INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

2. Because of the safety hazards and security policies of many
companies, inspections should be joint and by appointment. On
the other hand, insisting on company representation during
inspection of a small operation may result in essentially
complete shutdown, thus creating a economic hardship. In such
a case, mere notification of the presence of the agency inspector
is often adequate. Laws governing public agency authority for
inspections provide the framework for this activity. These laws
may vary by agency or geographic location.
II. INSPECTIONS
D. Mechanical Inspections
The potential source of ignition for wildland fires during industrial
activity is mechanical equipment. The most common part ofthe
machine to directly cause wildfires is the exhaust system. Several
laws have been passed as a result of this fact. However, other potential
heat sources cause fires and should be included in a complete fire
prevention mechanical inspection.
When fire prevention inspections of machinery are made with the
engine running, extreme caution must be exercised to avoid contact
with exhaust systems, fans, belts, exposed gears, etc. Also, if the
machine is mobile, the brakes should be set and attachments such as
blades and buckets must be lowered to the ground. Blocking of wheels
or tracks is an additional safety precaution that is good practice. If
possible, inspect machinery when it is not running.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Inspection and Safety - 29

1. Exhaust Systems
a. Exhaust systems start fires in two ways: emission of
carbon sparks and direct contact with flammable
materials. Contact with flammable materials may happen
in either of two ways: by collection of flammables on
manifolds and inside shields or parking where
flammables touch, or come in close proximity to, pipes
and other components. Potential problems from sparks
and collection of flammables are detected by inspection
of the machine itself. Problems from potential contact
will be revealed by inspection of the operating area and
of company rules and regulations.
b. All internal combustion engines operating on forest,
brush or grass-covered lands should be equipped with an
effective spark arrester. Muffler-equipped trucks, buses
and passenger vehicles (except motorcycles) may be
exempt, unless the system has been modified. However,
if they are used regularly and primarily off-
road in such areas, it is good fire-safe practice
to equip them with spark arresters in addition
to mufflers. Turbochargers are normally
accepted by fire protection agencies in lieu of
spark arresters, so long as everything is in
good working order and no exhaust gases
(including crankcase breathers) are put into the
exhaust system downstream from the
turbocharger. Not all turbochargers prevent fuel sparks.
Each turbocharged exhaust system should be inspected as
thoroughly as normally aspirated exhaust systems that
require spark arresters.
30 – Inspection and Safety INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

Specific requirements or restrictions for internal
combustion engines may be regulated by agency
industrial fire precaution levels or other industrial
regulations.
c. Spark arresters are of two types. By far the most
common is the retention arrester. Depending on make
and model, this type of arrester will be fitted with a band
covering ports or a plug through which trapped carbon
particles are removed. The inspector should remove the
band or plug to determine whether the arrester has been
recently emptied and is functioning properly. Excessive
amounts of carbon (i.e., enough to fall out when the
band or plug is removed with the engine shut down)
found inside constitute a violation. If the machine has
been recently shut down, the inspector should wear
gloves to prevent burns.
d. The other type is the attrition arrester. This arrester will
have no clean-out arrangement. It is much more
difficult to inspect. The only sure way is to fit a screen
of maximum legal-size mesh (.023 inch) over its
discharge and observe whether or not any carbon
particles are trapped inside the screen during a period
of test operation of the engine. Another way would be
night observation during normal operation of the
machine to observe whether or not incandescent sparks
are emitted.
e. Both types of arresters, as well as mufflers, should be
checked, either visually or by a probe, to learn if they
have been altered internally and are no longer anything
but a disguised straightpipe. Spark arresters are
manufactured in models designed to perform only in
either a vertical or horizontal position. The
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Inspection and Safety - 31

position. The inspector should determine that the arrester
is not installed improperly. An improperly installed spark
arrester will not function effectively. Machines with
defective spark arresters should be prohibited from use.
f. The U.S. Forest Service publishes a "Spark Arrester
Guide" which lists approved spark arresters by make and
model together with the type of machine and position of
which they are approved. Every inspector, vendor and
owner should be familiar with this publication. This
publication is available at the National Interagency Fire
Center, Boise, Idaho.
g. The most common place for flammables to collect on an
exhaust system is the exhaust manifold. The exhaust
manifold can become a collection point on any internal
combustion engine, gasoline or diesel. Screening the
engine compartment, reversing the fan or other design
changes can often alleviate the problem. However, it can
seldom be completely eliminated and the inspector
should always check for accumulations at this point.
Cleaning of compartment areas should always be made
part of routine maintenance.
h. Catalytic converters have been considered responsible for
markedly increasing the risk of fire caused by the exhaust
systems of gasoline­powered vehicles. Properly installed
and maintained catalytic converters themselves do not
significantly increase the fire starting potential of exhaust
systems through direct contact. The temperature of the
exhaust pipe is already well above the ignition
temperature of dry grass, leaves and needles. On the
other hand, the shields installed around many converters
to keep them from contacting such flammables often
32 – Inspection and Safety INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

have the opposite effect (i.e., they collect the vegetation
between the shield and the converter where it may catch
fire and drop out onto a receptive fuel bed). Inspectors
should check for such accumulations.
i. Catalytic converters and the tail pipes behind them can
sometimes reach temperature as high as 2000° F. This is
the result of a malfunctioning engine (e.g., misfiring
spark plug, dirty air cleaner) allowing unburned fuel into
the exhaust system. Under such conditions, the fuel
actually burns in the converter instead of in the cylinders.
For this reason, the engines of vehicles equipped with
catalytic converters should be well maintained and tuned-
up frequently. Catalytic converters that frequently
operate above specified temperatures can break down or
fracture, expelling internal components, these
superheated elements are a likely source for fire starts.
2. Miscellaneous
a. Many wildland industrial operation fires start from the
machine itself catching fire and transmitting the fire to
vegetative fuels. For this reason, the inspector should
not only inspect the machine for potential ignition
sources, but also for the presence of firefighting
equipment, including both a suitable fire extinguisher
and appropriate hand tools, especially a shovel.
b. The most common source of machine fires is the fuel
system, including refueling procedures. Although this
statement applies to all internal combustion engine
equipment, it is particularly true of gasoline engines.
This is because of the high volatility of gasoline, its
low ignition temperature and the tendency of its fumes
to travel in flammable concentrations. Agency
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Inspection and Safety - 33

inspectors are not expected to be mechanics, but they
should at least look for any obvious leaks or signs of
wear or vibration in fuel lines, especially the high
pressure lines from the pump to the injectors on diesel
engines. Operating company mechanical inspections
should be made by mechanics. Inspectors should assure
themselves that engines are always shut down and
positioned in a sufficiently large area cleared of all
flammable materials during refueling.
c. Other items on engines which should be checked
during a fire prevention inspection include: worn,
cracked or deteriorating insulation on electrical
systems; loose or worn belts; worn or dry bearings and
gears; flat tires, especially inside duels; low fluid level
and/or heating in automatic transmissions and torque
converters; overheating brakes; etc.
E. Operating Area Inspections
Fire prevention inspections of operating areas are made to determine
the nature and extent of fire hazards present, the effectiveness of
measures taken to abate them, and compliance with requirements for
clearings, signs, smoking practices, extinguishers, tools, etc. For most
operations, even large ones, it is best done from the ground.
Equipment servicing areas are normally accessible by vehicle. Often
the most critical area is near the perimeter of the operating area,
accessible only by tracked machines or foot. This is also often true of
operations involving chain saws, air drills, cutting and welding
equipment or other portable machines.
34 – Inspection and Safety INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

F. Identification of item inspected
Proper identification of the item inspected is quite necessary to avoid
misunderstanding, inappropriate corrective action, or enforcement
problems. Place or brand names alone are inadequate. There may be
two Bear Creeks within a few miles of each other. A single operation
may have several bulldozers of the same make and size working. The
agency inspector needs to be flexible in his/her approach to
identification as he/she is usually responsible for inspecting several
different types of industries and what is meaningful to one may not be
to another.
1. Location
a. Location of the area or item inspected can usually be
given by section, township and range or other
coordinates. This is meaningful to both the protection
agencies and the timber industry. It may not be to other
industries. For them, additional location information such
as pit number, lease name and well number, project
name, or centerline distance number will be necessary.
For the timber industry, an additional landmark location
description is helpful.
b. When section, township and range or other coordinates
are used, the location should be given as precisely as
possible. There may be several ownerships, and/or
operations within a single section. It is not difficult with
modem topographic maps to determine location within a
quarter section. In many cases, quarter-quarter section
(40 acres) designation is entirely practical.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Inspection and Safety - 35

2. Equipment
Equipment should be as fully and precisely identified as
reasonably possible, even if there is only one of a type present
during this inspection. Upon return, the inspector may find a
substitute or several additional units. The most obvious
identification is the brand name and type, such as bulldozer,
yarder, end loader, or compressor. In addition, the size and
serial number should be recorded. Some operators provide their
own identification numbers on the machine. These are easier to
use than serial numbers.
III. LEGAL ACTIONS
Inspections or fire-cause investigations may lead to any one or a
combination of legal actions. Since these actions are sometimes
misunderstood and confused with each other by both agency and company
personnel, each will be briefly described here.
A. Administrative
1. Administrative action is a legal action; however, a court is not
involved. It is, however, a formal notification of violation of a
law or regulation and a notice to correct the violation, usually
within a specified time. It becomes a matter of record and may
serve as the basis for more stringent action later. The
administrative action, in addition to being a legal notice,
becomes a documented history.
2. Administrative action is initiated by the protection agency and
addressed to the operating company. It may take any number of
forms. A notice for internal combustion engines may be affixed
to the machine itself and can serve as notice of violation and an
order to shut down the engine and not place it back in service
until the violation is corrected.
36 – Inspection and Safety INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

3. Administrative action may also come in the form of a letter,
memo, telegram, etc., from the inspector or supervisor. Letters
of demand for damages or costs of suppression fall in this
category as do actions to suspend or revoke licenses and
permits.
B. Civil
This is a filing, with a court of appropriate jurisdiction, of a suit for
damages or costs of fire suppression, or both. It is seldom filed unless
a letter of demand has been ignored or denied. In some cases, liens
may be filed to secure cost recovery.
C. Criminal
Criminal action is usually initiated by a citation or complaint. Most
criminal actions coming from violations of fire laws or regulations are
misdemeanor actions. Such actions may name as the defendant either
the company or the employee who was found committing the act, or
both. If the company is named, the only penalty possible is a fine. If
an employee is named, the penalty may be a fine and/or a jail term.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Inspection and Safety - 37

Notes
38 – Notes INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

6.0 Maintenance, Repair and Servicing
The use of machinery vastly increases labor productivity, but it also provides some
problems, not the least of these is that it requires continuous maintenance, repair
and servicing. If maintenance, repair and servicing of mechanical equipment could
be done in shops or corporation yards, the threat of wildland fire from these
activities would be negligible. This, however, is not the case and such activities
often take place in highly fire hazardous situations.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Explosives - 39

I. WELDING, CUTTING AND GRINDING
The primary fire risk from these activities is the falling of sparks, slag or hot
metal into dry vegetative fuel beds. There is also some risk of ignition of
fumes from volatile fuels or solvents. The electric arc or gas flame itself is
such an obvious heat source that it is seldom allowed to contact vegetation
or other fuels.
Welding, cutting, and grinding are often done as emergency repairs to get a
disabled machine moving again. This means that the choice of time and
location is severely limited or nonexistent. The machine may very well be
situated in the middle of a hillside covered with dry grass or pine needles.
Before any arc is struck or other repair work started, the area should be made
as fire safe as possible. All flammable vegetation and other fuels should be
removed for a minimum radius of 10 feet from the area to be worked in.
Several companies regularly provide 25 feet clearance. Also, firefighting
equipment, including a backpack pump water type fire extinguisher and
shovel, should be provided close by (i.e., less than 25 feet from the activity).
When fire danger rating is "Very High," or when winds prevail, a larger
clearing radius should be employed. When fire danger rating is in effect, all
welding, cutting or grinding activities in the field should be stopped.
Whenever welding, cutting or grinding is done in the field, a fire watch
should be on hand during the operation and left at the site for at least one
hour after the completion of the repair. A welder wearing a hood or dark
goggles can seldom see a vegetation fire. During high fire danger periods,
industrial fire precaution levels may prohibit this activity during certain
hours.
Spark arrester and clearing requirements are applicable to portable
generators supplying power to arc welders and grinders. It should also be
remembered that the operator will not lose his/her responsibility and
liability, although may share it, by using an independent contract welder
rather than an employee. He/she must be sure the professional welder is
aware of and follows fire safe practices and complies with the law.
40 – Maintenance, Repair and Servicing INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

Much of what is discussed is included in various timber sale and
construction contracts, state law and in some local ordinances. In those
jurisdictions where welding permits are required, clearance and fire tool
requirements will usually be included among the conditions of the permit.
Fire conscious operators will take these precautions voluntarily.
II. REFUELING AND LUBRICATION
Whenever possible, refueling and lubrication should be done at properly
equipped and cleared shop or yard areas. On logging and many construction
operations, this may not be feasible. In these situations, certain precautions
should be taken. In the interests of both fire prevention and water pollution
control, all drain oil, used oil filters, rags and other trash should be disposed
of by complete removal from the site. These items should be transported to
and deposited in an approved waste disposal site.
Wheeled or tracked machinery is usually serviced from a truck, which
means it will normally be brought to a log landing or other similar cleared
area accessible by the service truck. If this is not the case or if portable
equipment (e.g., chain saws or small generators) is being refueled, a clearing
to mineral soil for at least a 10-foot radius should be made and the unit to be
serviced placed in the center before any fuel transfer takes place. For both
fire and personnel safety, all power units should be shutdown and cooled
before being serviced. Before restarting, spilled fuel should be wiped off
portable units and the units be moved at least 3 feet and positioned so that
the exhaust points away from the spot where refueling took place.
Fuels, especially gasoline, should be stored according to local regulations.
Above ground storage in quantities in excess of one 55- gallon drum should
be avoided. In any event, a clearing of all vegetation and other flammables
should be maintained for at least a 15-foot radius from the container and/or
pump.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Explosives - 41

Laws, ordinances or regulations in many places require that a dike of
sufficient height and area to retain the entire contents of the tank in case of
rupture or overflow be constructed around any tank of 500 gallons or larger
capacity. Such quantities of fuels should not be stored within 250 feet of a
live stream or 50 feet of any vegetation. Fueling hoses should be fitted with
automatically closing valves and nozzles to shut off the flow of fuel in case
of hose rupture or nozzle dropping.
III. SERVICING EQUIPMENT
The equipment used to supply servicing is subject to the same laws and
regulations as the equipment being serviced and for the same reasons. The
exhaust from a pump engine or air compressor engine is just as dangerous as
that from a tractor or a truck. Thus every internal combustion engine must be
equipped with a spark arrester. The only exemption is for muffler-equipped
motive power engines on trucks, buses and passenger vehicles. All other
engines mounted on such vehicles (e.g., to power fire pumps, compressors,
generators, etc.), mounted on trailers or skids, or hand portable, must be
spark arrester equipped. In addition, if the unit is not mobile or is to be
operated in a given location for a time, a clearing of flammable material
shall be made around it for a radius of at least 10 feet and firefighting tools
provided nearby.
Service vehicles, including fuel trucks and mechanics' trucks, should be
equipped with large (i.e., 20-40 lb.) multipurpose fire extinguishers. The
operators of the vehicles should be well trained in the use of these
extinguishers. They are often alone and in remote locations when servicing
or repairing machinery. It is, therefore, very important that they be capable
of quick and effective fire suppression action in case an ignition occurs from
any cause.
Standard non-spark arresting exhaust systems may be prohibited for off-road
use during high fire danger periods or regulated use closures.
42 – Maintenance, Repair and Servicing INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

IV. SPARK ARRESTER SERVICING
An item often overlooked or given inadequate attention during servicing of
machinery is the spark arrester. Every mechanic, operator and owner knows
that the air cleaner on an internal combustion engine must be regularly
cleaned or replaced; if it is not, the engine loses power. They are, therefore,
generally very conscientious about performing this service. The need for
cleaning or emptying the spark arrester is not so apparent. Except in the case
of screen-type arresters (usually found only on small multi-position engines)
the performance of the engine is not affected. Therefore, there is little to
remind the operator that the arrester needs cleaning. However, when the trap
is full (or the screen burned out) the arrester completely loses its
effectiveness and carbon sparks will be emitted. Spark arresters should be
checked and cleaned regularly and often (every 30 days or less). The proper
way to do this is to make sure the machine is parked in a cleared fire-safe
area, remove the band or plug and then start the engine and blow out the
carbon.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Explosives - 43

Notes
44 – Notes INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

7.0 Explosives
Explosives are used by numerous wildland industrial operations, especially
construction and mining. When their use is kept in the hands of experienced
personnel, their fire starting potential has proven to be low. However, in the hands
of untrained or illegal users their potential for both fire and blast damage is great.
I. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
A. There are federal, state, and local laws governing the manufacture,
sale, transportation, storage and use of explosives. It is primarily
aimed at protecting the public from blast damage and from theft,
terrorism, illegal possession and use. These laws are usually
administered by law enforcement rather than fire agencies. Fire
agencies are often unaware of the existence of explosives within their
area of jurisdiction. When they are aware of explosives within their
jurisdiction, they need to notify all fire prevention, detection and
suppression personnel in the area. For this reason, some fire agencies
may require blasting permits in addition to any other required
explosive permits, and in addition, the contractor may be required to
notify the local fire agency of the legal location of the explosive so
that appropriate personnel can be notified. Be aware of new laws that
require notification to the jurisdictional fire agencies.
B. Regulations of the Federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms
(27CFR55.41) provide for explosives licenses and permits, classes of
explosive materials, types of storage facilities, location of storage
facilities, construction of storage facilities, quantity and storage
restrictions, and required distances from exposures. Included among
these regulations is one (27CFR55.215) which states, "The area
surrounding magazines, or trees (except live trees more than 10 feet
tall), for not less than 25 feet in all directions. Volatile materials
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Explosives - 45

are to be kept a distance of not less than 50 feet from outdoor
magazines. Living foliage which is used to stabilize the earthen
converting of a magazine need not be removed."
II. MAJOR CAUSES
In wildland fire protection, three main problems are related to explosives.
One is use of fuses rather than electric detonation. If properly placed, the
explosives themselves will seldom ignite a fire. Cordite, primacord, or other
burning fuses, however, will not only ignite forest fuels, but short pieces can
be thrown considerable distances by the explosion and can cause multiple
fires where they land. Therefore, it is recommended that all blasting in
forest, range or watershed areas be detonated electrically. Consider all
explosives capable of starting fires.
Second is the heat of the explosive detonation. The rapid (instantaneous)
oxidation of the explosive chemicals produces great heat in a small space
and time. In contact with, or in close proximity to flammables, such heat will
cause ignition resulting in fire. If clearance is not provided, the explosive
charge will be in close proximity to forest fuels.
The third fire problem is storage. This problem has two aspects. One is
security. More explosives are stolen from temporary caches on construction
and logging projects than from any other location. This is primarily a law
enforcement problem; however, significant amounts of the stolen explosives
end up being used in the wildlands by untrained and inexperienced people
and thus become a fire problem.
Explosives becoming exposed to wildfire is the other aspect of the storage
problem. Magazines and caches are often deliberately camouflaged and their
locations are usually kept secret as protection against theft. This means that
they are often in close contact with forest fuels and firefighters seldom know
where they are. In the interests of fire safety, all magazines and caches
46 – Explosives INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

for explosives should have a clearance of flammables around them similar to
that required for structures in wildland areas. Some companies provide
clearances up to 100 feet. If this cannot be reconciled with the security
problem, some other means (e.g., insulation) should be employed to keep the
radiated heat of a forest fire from detonating the explosives inside.
Even with the best of control, a certain risk of fire is always associated with
the use of explosives in wildland areas. Wildland fuels may be present in an
unknown proximity; sparks may be struck by quartz or flint rocks, or some
malfunction may occur. Therefore, it is always wise to keep a fire watchers
in the area for at least one hour after detonation. Sleeper fires have been
known to hang over and spring to life because of the wind, fuel moisture or
some other weather change long after work crews have left an area.
Federal Regulations 29 CFR 1926.900 (1) require the disposal of explosive
containers by burning. Burning Permit and an approved site may be
necessary for large construction projects.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Explosives - 47

Notes
48 – Notes INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

8.0 Motor Vehicle Operation and Maintenance
Motor vehicles (i.e., trucks, buses, pickups, passenger cars, etc.) are an integral
part of every industrial operation in wildland areas. They also comprise one ofthe
largest single fire risk associated with these operations. There are so many of these
vehicles and they are used in so many ways that they pose an ever-present fire risk.
Though perhaps concentrated in the operating area, this risk is not confined there.
It is also present along access routes and in reconnaissance and exploration areas.
Any fire tools carried on motor vehicles should be readily accessible for quick use.
They should never be locked inside of trunks, tool boxes or other compartments.
Also, they should be retained and maintained for firefighting use only and never
used for routine work.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Motor Vehicle Operation and Maintenance - 49

I. FUEL SYSTEMS
Gasoline is highly volatile and easy to ignite. Diesel fuel has low volatility
but will ignite if spilled on an exhaust manifold or exposed to a dead short of
a battery cable. Carbureted gasoline and fuel­ injected diesel engines use
low-pressure fuel lines which, if cracked or broken, will allow fuel to spill or
run out onto hot surfaces below the opening. Fuel-injected gasoline and
external pump diesel engines employ high-pressure fuel lines which, if
cracked or broken, will spray fuel all over the engine compartment,
including onto exhaust manifolds. In rugged dirt road and off-road service,
any of these things can easily happen.
The best means of preventing fires related to the fuel system is a good
preventive maintenance program. The fuel system should be checked often
for any signs of excessive vibration, cracks, abrasion or loose fittings. This is
particularly important on those portions of any system that are above exhaust
manifolds or pipes. Keep engine compartments clean and free of debris.
For quick suppression of these fires which may occur, each vehicle used as
part of an industrial operation in the wildland should have, in addition to the
wildland firefighting tools required by laws and contracts, a multipurpose
dry-powder fire extinguisher of not less than four pound capacity. The
extinguisher should be readily available to the operator without the necessity
of unlocking a trunk or compartment to retrieve it.
II. EXHAUST SYSTEMS
Fires caused by vehicle exhaust systems are most often ignited by carbon
particles or hot gases coming in contact with flammable vegetation (e.g., dry
grass, leaves or needles) or by direct contact with such fuels by a hot metal
part of the system (e.g., muffler, catalytic converter or exhaust pipe). The
third way is for fuels (e.g., chaff, gasoline or paper) to come to rest on the
exhaust manifold.
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Internal combustion engines used in the wildland other than those providing
power to licensed motor vehicles (except motorcycles) are required to be
fitted with spark arresters. Many diesel and some gasoline engines are now
turbocharged which usually substitutes for a spark arrester, but the others
can still emit sparks.
A. Exhaust Carbon Or Particles
Internal combustion engines can bum fuel inefficiently and can
produce carbon when idling, operating at low power or in poor
condition. Subsequent revving of the engine associated with getting
rolling or shifting gears (especially downshifting) or the application of
full throttle will blow out any accumulated carbon particles, which are
commonly at 1000-1200 degrees F. when they leave the exhaust
system. They are very often still well above the ignition temperature
of dry grass, leaves or needles (500-700 degrees F.) when they reach
ground level. Some carbon particles actually are aflame while
traveling through the air.
Operation of motor vehicles with sick or worn engines can produce
carbon almost continuously. Pieces of it are likely to break lose and
fly out the exhaust system at any time.
Carbon particles and hot gases can escape and start fires through
cracks, breaks, burned or rusted out holes and loose connections. The
entire exhaust system should be inspected at frequent intervals to
make sure that none of these conditions exist.
B. Ignition By Direct Contact
Ignition by direct contact with hot metal parts of the exhaust system
most often takes place at the muffler, catalytic converter or exhaust
pipe between the manifold and the muffler or converter. Temperatures
at any of these places are well above the ignition temperature of
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Motor Vehicle Operation and Maintenance - 51

dry wildland fuels. The time of greatest risk is during the first few
minutes that a vehicle is parked, whether the engine is left running or
not. Vehicles should be parked in an area cleared of all flammable
material.
The hottest point on most exhaust systems under normal operating
conditions is at the first bend behind the manifold where the pipe turns
from a vertical to a horizontal alignment. If the engine is not kept
properly tuned, raw gasoline will bum in the converter and produce
temperatures as high as 2400°F.
Most catalytic converters are now shielded. Care needs to be taken
that material does not become trapped between the shield and the
converter, which could then cause a fire.
C. Catalytic Converter Melt Down
Most gasoline-powered motor vehicles today are equipped with a
catalytic converter. Catalytic converters have been known to melt
down and cause fires. The melting of the converter is caused by an
initial malfunction in the electronic ignition systems which allows raw
fuel to go directly into the exhaust system and accumulate at the
catalytic converter causing the converter to melt and particles to
escape the exhaust system.
Malfunctions of this nature can cause fires to be spread over a large
area. The operator of the vehicle may not be aware that fires are being
caused and continue traveling. Evidently, this malfunction can correct
itself and the operator may never be aware of the fires that were
caused by him/her.
D. Other Exhaust Problems
One other source of fires has been identified to be caused by wood
chips after they have come into contact with the exhaust system.
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It is believed that wood chips, when blown into a trailer while the
truck is attached can enter the exhaust system. They can remain in the
system and "cook" until they become light enough and are blown form
the exhaust system, usually a distance from the operation area.
A second source of ignition from the wood chips is if they become
lodged between the exhaust stack protector and the exhaust stack on
trucks, again while being loaded at the operation area. These chips
again "cook" from the heat of the exhaust stack and can fall out and
cause a fire, usually a distance from the operation area. Additionally,
in areas where there are dairies, manure can present the same problem
as wood chips.
Fires from this source can be prevented by either having an extension
on the exhaust stack turned 90 degrees from the trailer or by removing
any obstructions in the heat shield which will allow the chips to fall
through without being subjected to the heat of the exhaust stack.
III. ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Vehicle electrical systems can start fires in a number of ways. The most
common is a short circuit in the wiring. This is usually the result of cracked,
broken or abraded insulation. It can happen anywhere on the vehicle, not
only in the ignition wiring. The best prevention is good preventive
maintenance and prompt replacement of any wiring showing signs of age or
wear.
Other electrical sources of ignition are short circuits in the starter or at the
battery connections and cables and improper use of jumper cables. All of
these cause arcing with the full voltage and amperage rating of the battery,
thus intensive heat and sparking can occur.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Motor Vehicle Operation and Maintenance - 53

IV. BRAKE SYSTEMS
Brake systems do not cause a large number of fires, but they should not be
overlooked. Brake drums, shoes and discs can, and do, overheat if used
excessively in mountainous terrain. The best way to avoid overheating
brakes is to travel at reduced speed, assisting the brakes with engine
compression, retarder or jake-brake as available.
Brakes can also cause fires when operators or service personnel spill
flammable liquid on them while they are still hot after normal use. Although
care in servicing should normally prevent such an occurrence, this is another
reason why servicing, including emergency repairs, should only be done in
an area cleared of all flammables for a distance of at least 10 feet in all
directions.
V. MISCELLANEOUS
Fires can originate from overheated bearings, running on a flat tire,
overheated engines and transmissions, etc. Motor vehicles involve a
combination of machinery and people, either or both of which can fail at any
time. When this happens in wildlands, a wildfire is very likely to result. So
constant preventive effort is always needed.
VI. TOOL REQUIREMENTS
Because motor vehicles may cause wildfires, contract clauses and company
rules may require firefighting tools to be carried on all vehicles used on
industrial operations. The most common requirements are a shovel and an
axe. Other requirements may be a five-gallon backpack pump and a four-
pound or larger ABC rated fire extinguisher.
54 – Motor Vehicle Operation and Maintenance INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

9.0 Use of Fire
Fire is used in many ways and for various purposes related to industrial operations
in the wildland. In some situations, it is a practical solution to a problem. In others,
it is the worst possible alternative. In the eyes of some, it is a natural process and
always preferable to the use of any herbicide. To others it poses an unacceptable
threat of escape and destruction. In some cases, mechanical alternatives are
available. In others, the only alternative is excessively expensive hand labor for
collection and removal.
Fire is a very useful tool for the wildland fire management officer, land manager or
construction contractor. It is also a very dangerous tool which should only be used
by a well trained and experienced professional and with the full prior knowledge
and permit approval of the responsible fire protection agency.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Use of Fire - 55

I. SLASH BURNING
Before any kind of burning can be done on commercial or private projects,
local fire agencies need to issue appropriate burn permits and educate
contractors or private land owners about air quality regulations and permits.
Logging slash is commonly burned for two reasons. One reason is to abate
the greatly increased fire hazard of untreated slash. The other reason is to
uncover the soil in preparation for planting or seeding to secure
regeneration. Sometimes the slash is piled or windrowed before burning. On
very steep slopes this pretreatment becomes very difficult and expensive and
broadcast burns are more common.
No matter whether the slash is pretreated or broadcast burned, there is
usually an abundance of cull logs, large limbs and other heavy fuel. Most
often there is plenty of fine and medium fuel to ignite this heavy fuel, which
then retains heat for very long periods. Rekindled and escaped fires after two
to six months, even after heavy rains and snows, are not at all uncommon.
One solution to this problem, which has been suggested, is yarding
unmerchantable material (YUM logging) prior to burning. In the past this
material really was unmerchantable, only the public agencies could afford to
do it. With current energy needs and the interest in biomass fuel sources, this
situation may very well change and cause YUM logging to be economically
practical. If so, slash burning is bound to become a much safer operation.
Not all slash burning escapes result from holdovers in heavy fuels. Many of
them are almost immediate and are generally the result of inadequate
planning, preparation, staffing and/or execution. Logging slash creates a
high intensity fire, which can easily escape by radiation, flying firebrands or
convection.
Proper planning includes keeping the size of the burn area no larger than that
which can be safely burned by the available staffing in one day. It also
includes scheduling the burning of multiple areas over several days or weeks
so that too many are not touched off on any given day. In many areas,
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because of the short interval between the end of fire season and the onset of
heavy rains and/or snow, this is not considered practical. Planning should
also include the provision of alternate work for the burning crews on days
when weather or other conditions make burning difficult, impossible or
unwise.
Preparation for a burn should include construction of adequate control lines,
pretreatment (e.g., crushing, lopping or spraying) and logistics (e.g., staffing,
equipment, tools, ignition devices, water and food). It is not a simple or
cheap undertaking. Staffing involves more than just someone to walk around
with a fusee or drip torch. Adequate personnel should be present to keep the
fire contained within its intended boundaries if it should flare up or make a
sudden run. This includes detecting and suppressing spot fires outside the
perimeter. In addition to firefighters, this will often require bulldozer or
pump operators and other specialized personnel. Probably the most
important position is an overall supervisor or prescribed fire manager to
direct both the firing operation and any suppression action that may become
necessary. The second most important staffing requirement is someone to
patrol and, if necessary, mop up the burned plot until the fire is extinguished.
This may extend into several months with daily patrols for hotspots.
Prescribed burn plans may be required prior to burning.
Proper execution of a slash burn involves a thorough understanding of fire
behavior, including the effects of topography, local wind patterns, fuel types
and densities, etc. Generally, firing should proceed from uphill and
downwind toward downhill and upwind. However, this pattern may have to
be altered because of local conditions. In any event, firing should always be
conducted so that no more heat is built up than can be safely contained by
the standby suppression forces and so that smoke will not affect populated
areas.
Where fuel loadings are particularly heavy or very strong or gusty winds are
common, serious consideration should be given to mechanical alternatives to
slash burning. Several of these have been developed, especially for wildland
use.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Use of Fire - 57

The Hydro Ax should be able to convert either slash or standing trees up to
16 inches in diameter into mulch of chips. Several brands of portable
chippers will accept woody material up to four inches in diameter and blow
the chips onto the forest floor. Other brush cutting machinery will chop
material up into small pieces and mix them into the top layer of soil. Other
machines which can effectively treat logging slash are either currently
available or under development.
II. LAND MANAGEMENT BURNING
Fire is also extensively used as a land management tool. One of the most
common of these uses is for cover type conversion (e.g., brush to forest or
range). Another is to reduce fire hazard by removing dead material, brush or
understory. Another is to favor one species or type of vegetation over
another while not basically changing the cover type.
Some years ago the concept of burning in accordance with a prescription to
achieve a specific goal on a particular site was developed in the South. In
recent years prescribed burning has been accepted and is undergoing gradual
development as a science. It involves a four-step process: (1) establishing
the objective; (2) taking fuel inventories (i.e., amount, size, type,
distribution, etc.); (3) establishing the intensity of fire needed to obtain the
objective in the existing fuels; and (4) prescribing the range of weather
factors that will produce the desired result on the type of topography where
the site is located.
While writing the prescription requires knowledge and skill in the fields of
fire physics and plant physiology, the execution of it demands similar
knowledge and skill in fire behavior and meteorology. Firing too fast or too
slow can negate the objective and potentially cause an escape. Precise
knowledge of local weather patterns is required to know when the
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prescribed conditions will exist, how long they will last and in what way
they will change. The logistics involved can be complicated. Alternative
work schedules should be available in case prescribed conditions for some
reason do not develop on the day of the burn.
III. DEBRIS BURNING
In most mountains and valley areas, debris burning may be restricted by air
pollution control laws. In a sense, slash and land management burning is
debris burning, but they are generally allowed under the agricultural or
forest management exemptions. Such exemptions are, however, in jeopardy
if, in addition to fire safety, smoke production and drift are not properly
managed. Burning of household trash may also be exempted in rural areas.
However, the burning of industrial waste, including woody material
resulting from clearing for construction projects, is usually not allowed
unless the responsible fire protection agency certifies that the waste
constitutes a fire hazard, which cannot be abated in some other way. The
same is true for burning done for the sole purpose of fire hazard reduction,
such as along highway or railroad right-of-ways.
Most fire agencies can help facilitate burning projects when the permittee
complies with all fire safety provisions and makes some effort to reduce
smoke emissions. For waste disposal, this can usually be accomplished by
achieving complete combustion in a high intensity fire. A forced-draft air
supply is usually necessary and several systems or pieces of equipment have
been developed for this purpose. For fire hazard reduction, where the
primary purpose is usually to eliminate the fine (flash) fuels, both smoke
emission reduction and the objective can best be obtained by following a
prescription that produces a low intensity fire. This kind of fire will also be
reasonably safe from escapes.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Use of Fire - 59

IV. LUNCH AND WARMING FIRES
Lunch and warming fires should be kept no larger than needed to do the
cooking or provide warmth. They should have a clearing to mineral soil for
at least five feet in all directions from the perimeter of the fire. The fire
should be confined to a depression scooped in the center of the clearing. At
least one adult should be in attendance with firefighting tools (i.e., shovel,
backpack pump and axe) readily available until the fire is completely
extinguished. Extinguishment should be with water and checked by bare
hand.
Under weather conditions creating "high" to "extreme" fire danger, which
indicates the probability of high winds or burning conditions, the use of
lunch or warming fires should be prohibited. Since the workers may not be
aware of these conditions, it is the responsibility of the company
management to inform them and enforce the restrictions. Lunch and
warming fires should only be used under the terms of a permit or
authorization issued by the appropriate fire agency and, if on private land, by
the owner.
V. INFRARED SCANNING
Infrared scanners can detect concentrations of heat, which are not visible to
the human eye (e.g., no smoke, area obscured by smoke or darkness).
Infrared scanners come in various models. The most useful to public or
private fire specialists are those designed for mounting in aircraft and those
that are hand held. In an aircraft (fixed-wing or helicopter), large areas can
be checked quickly for holdovers from slash or land management burning or
abandoned lunch and warming fires. The handheld scanners are useful for
checking specific suspected locations (e.g., recently extinguished lunch and
warming fires, previously burned piles or windrows of slash, or areas near
the control lines of wild or prescribed fires).
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10.0 Timber Harvesting
Historically, the timber harvesting industry has been responsible for fires,
including some of the most devastating and costly in American history. Over the
years, the record has been significantly improved. Considering the fact that the
timber industry is operating continuously in a highly vulnerable environment,
timber harvesting operations cause remarkably few wildfires. Industry personnel
suppress most of those fires before the public agency forces arrive. This kind of
record cannot, however, be maintained without continuous effort on the part of
both the industry and the fire agencies.
With only a few exceptions, fires caused by timber harvesting operations are the
result of ignorance or carelessness. The fully informed and conscientious operator
or employee will not willfully risk a fire. Too much is at stake. On the other hand,
new or poorly trained employees can unknowingly cause fires.
This section will present some of the more important fire safety information for the
timber harvesting industry. Included is material on machinery, procedure, personal
habits and special areas.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Timber Harvesting - 61

I. CHAIN SAWS
In the past, chain saws were among the most dangerous machinery in the
woods. A modem saw in the hands of a skilled operator will seldom cause a
fire. Many older saws were poorly designed and underpowered.
Unfortunately, some of them are still around.
Design features included discharging the exhaust
into the saw cut or sawdust, fuel filler cap directly
above the exhaust system, lack of or poorly
designed spark arresters, etc. Underpowering led to
overheating. In the past, saw operators were either
not trained or were not required to refuel in cleared
areas, keep spark arresters clean and in place or carry firefighting tools and
equipment.
The greatest fire danger with regard to a
chain saw is during refueling. The saw
should always be set firmly in position
within an area cleared of all flammables
down to mineral soil for a radius of 10
feet. The engine should be stopped and
allowed to cool while chain oil is being
replenished. The required fire tools (i.e.,
shovel and fire extinguisher) should be placed nearby. Care should be
exercised to avoid spilling any fuel on the engine, especially on or near the
exhaust port.
A dangerous operation with the chain saw is cutting dead wood. Unless
decomposition has started, the wood is harder than green wood; therefore,
the saw has to work harder and both the chain and the engine can overheat.
In addition, the sawdust is a highly flammable fine-sized fuel. It can quickly
blow onto the engine and ignite. It will not necessarily stay there. Before the
operator even notices it, glowing embers can fall into sawdust or duff. The
sharper the operator keeps his chain the easier it will cut; therefore, less
heating of both chain and motor will result. If the surface wood is punky,
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even the exhaust gases can ignite it. A careful fire watch should be kept on
such an area for at least one hour following cutting.
The spark arrester should be checked for holes each time the saw is refueled.
If the mesh is fine enough to meet legal standards (.023 in.), screen arresters
work quite well when both they and the engine are new. Worn engines
produce more carbon than new ones, therefore, they tend to clog the screen
rather rapidly. The wire used to make the screen, though usually a high
carbon steel, is so fine that it will burn out under continuous heavy use.
Thus, in order to avoid either excessive back pressure or the escape of
carbon particles, these screen arresters require frequent inspection and
servicing. They should be inspected for holes at each refueling and cleaned
daily. Most professional sawyers carry a spare spark arrester screen to avoid
costly shutdown if the installed screen should fail.
II. TRACTORS, SKIDDERS, LOADERS, ETC.
The heavy power equipment used in
timber harvesting is not basically
different from that used by the
construction and surface mining
industries. Generally speaking,
however, the hazards are greater since
the logging machines are operating
almost continuously over and through
flammable wildland fuels. Construction and mining equipment, on the other
hand, is usually working in the hazardous environment only during the
pioneering stages of a project or operation. Consequently manufacturers,
distributors, owners, and agency inspectors have all devoted a great deal of
attention to the reduction of the fire-starting potential of logging machines.
Exhaust sparks may be a fire risk from logging machinery. This explains the
requirement in laws and timber sale contracts for spark arresters on all
exhaust stacks, not only the main engine, but starting and other auxiliary
internal combustion engines as well. Because the rapidly turning drive
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Timber Harvesting - 63

blades of a turbocharger tend to chew carbon particles into dust and thus act
as an attrition spark arrester such turbochargers are usually accepted in lieu
of spark arresters. This practice should not be
followed automatically. The exhaust systems on
certain makes and models of engines are so
designed that only a portion of the exhaust gases
pass through the turbocharger, the rest being
bypassed directly into the exhaust stack and thus
receiving no spark arresting treatment. These
machines, even though turbocharged, must be equipped with spark arresters.
An adequate spark arrester is one that effectively removes carbon (sparks)
that are large enough to ignite light fuels (e.g., dry grass, pine needles or oak
leaves) from the exhaust stream. It will only do this if it is of the proper size
and is properly installed (i.e., vertical or horizontal). Most all arresters in use
are of the retention type. This means that they trap and retain carbon
particles. When the trap becomes full, they completely lose their arresting
capabilities, and thus no longer comply with legal or contract requirements.
Therefore, the trap should be emptied regularly and often. The spark arrester
on a finely tuned machine should be cleaned every 30-40 operating hours.
The proper way of doing this is to park the machine on a landing or other
large cleared area, remove the band or plug, start the engine and rev it up to
blow out the carbon, shut down the engine and replace the band or plug. It
should be remembered that some units may require two spark arresters: one
for the diesel engine and one for the gasoline starter engine.
OSHA regulations require most new equipment to be fitted with mufflers or
silencers. Many older operators and owners are convinced that an internal
combustion engine cannot operate efficiently with both a muffler and a spark
arrester affixed to the exhaust stack because too much back pressure is
created. This is not necessarily so, provided the proper model and size of
both is utilized. Many new machines come factory equipped this way and
older machines can be successfully retrofitted if properly engineered.
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Another fire risk, particularly with log skidding equipment (e.g., tractors and
rubber-tired skidders), is the collection of flammable debris inside the engine
compartment, particularly on the exhaust manifold or in the belly pan. The
danger of the former location is obvious. Debris in the belly pan restricts
cooling of crankcase oil, hydraulic fluid and engine cooling water and
causes engine overheating. In addition, it forms a fuel bed to which access
for extinguishment of a fire ignited from any source (e.g., exhaust sparks,
flaming or glowing material falling from the exhaust manifold or electric
short) is almost impossible. For both reasons, machines designed for use in
the logging industry by all manufacturers in recent years have had the engine
compartments enclosed by plates and/or screens. These should always be
kept in place while the machine is being operated. Some operators and
mechanics fail to replace them after servicing or repairing equipment, but
they are creating more problems than they are solving when they do this. In
fact, it would be good practice to retrofit older machines with these screens.
Those machines which are not so equipped should have all debris removed
from the engine compartment, especially the belly pan, regularly and often.
Once a day or at every refueling is recommended.
Another potential source of ignition of flammables located either on or off of
the machine is leakage in the exhaust system. This problem is primarily one
of inadequate maintenance and repair. Leaks can develop from cracks,
missing bolts, burned-out or rusted-out spots, etc. Also some exhaust
systems include sections of flexible tubing. These are vulnerable to vibration
and burning out. They should be checked regularly for leaks. Any exhaust
system which leaks is in violation of the spark arrester laws and regulations.
A source of fire ignition can be an electrical short. All such equipment has
an electrical system, either for ignition on a gasoline-starter engine or for
power supply to an electric-starter motor. The cables are subject to abrasion,
vibration and corrosion and thus to shorts. The resulting arcing will most
often ignite a fire on the machine itself, particularly if it has been allowed to
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Timber Harvesting - 65

accumulate flammable debris and/or oil or grease. Once the machine catches
fire, it becomes a threat to the surrounding forest. Therefore, electrical
systems should be checked frequently for any signs of worn insulation, loose
connections or corrosion. Also, the entire machine, not just the belly pan,
should be kept clean of flammable debris. As an additional safeguard, it has
been suggested that a quick-operating master switch for opening the circuit
be located within easy reach of the driver for use in an emergency. Similar
protection could be provided by an automatic overload circuit breaker.
Less frequent causes of fires in logging machinery include: overheated
brakes on wheeled equipment, slipping belts, overheated bearings and
bushings, sparks struck by bulldozer tracks or blades against stones, etc.
Most of these, except the last, can be avoided by good preventive
maintenance programs, which will not only make the equipment more fire
safe, but also improve its efficiency and longevity. Blade and track sparks
are difficult to prevent, thus require vigilance and rapid suppression action.
Every piece of mobile equipment used for yarding and loading logs should
be equipped with a readily accessible fire extinguisher and should be
required to have a long-handle, round-point shovel for fire suppression. The
extinguisher should be at least a 10-pound multipurpose (ABC) dry-powder
type. All extinguishers and tools must be in compliance with regulations.
III. FELLER/HYDRO BUNCHERS
Another process is the use of machinery that cuts and bunches smaller trees
for processing into wood chips either for pulp or hog fuel. These machines
are normally referred to as "feller/bunchers." Although all of the machines
pose the same risks of fires from the exhaust system, these type of machines
bring their own unique fire risk problems. Numerous fires have been
documented from these types of machines with a saw, instead of a snipper.
The saw causes a fire either through friction of cutting the tree off
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or the saws teeth hitting a rock unseen by the operator. Due to the high
hydraulic pressure these machines operate under, fires can readily ignite
when a leak occurs in the hydraulic system and comes into contact with the
hot exhaust or engine.
Another type of ignition is the saw contacting rocks throwing sparks into the
dry vegetation.
Because the weight of most mechanized harvesting equipment is less than
some conventional types of equipment, they can pivot and tum quicker than
a bulldozer, thus creating sparks from the cleats when contacting rocks.
When these sparks land in a receptive fuel bed, an ignition can occur.
IV. MANUAL/AUTOMATIC FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS
Many models of heavy equipment have these dry chemical fire suppression
systems which are mounted inside the engine compartment and should be
inspected. There are three parts to the system: the firing mechanism,
extinguisher, and the distribution system.
The firing mechanism consists of a nitrogen cartridge that can be visually
checked for a manufacturing date stamped on the neck. If the date is over ten
years old, the cartridge needs to be replaced. Also check wiring to the
cartridge for any frays and also check for tight mounting brackets.
When inspecting the extinguisher, the top lid can be removed and the dry
chemical stirred to check for wetness or clumping, the chemical must be dry
and loose to be effective. In accordance with NFPA Standard 17, the
chemical must be replaced every six years. Also inspect brackets for
tightness.
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The distribution network begins at the extinguisher outlet and ends at the
nozzles. The following are items to check:
• Check for hoses routed out of the way of all engine compartment
parts. The hoses should be secured with connectors and hose tie
wraps.
• Look for hose kinks and damaged hose.
• Where hose or pipe runs through metal there must be a rubber
grommet in the hole.
• All nozzles must be aimed at hazard areas and the hinge on the cone
nozzle cap must be mounted away from the hazard areas.
• There must be spring tension in nozzle caps (not all models have caps)
and no debris accumulations on cone caps.
• The battery wiring to the extinguishing system should be checked for
flaws.
V. CABLE SYSTEMS
Cable logging systems are composed of yarders, cables and usually blocks.
They are rigged in three basic configurations (ground lead, high lead and
skyline) with many variations of each. Their primary use is for logging
country, which is too steep for skidder or tractor logging. This means that
they are found in topography where fire suppression is very difficult and
expensive. Therefore, fire prevention is of utmost importance.
The yarder is generally speaking, the least dangerous part of a cable logging
system from a fire risk standpoint, but it cannot be ignored. A yarder is
composed of an internal combustion engine providing power to a winch with
one to four drums and a boom or tower. In some systems, the tower is
separate. Even though the yarder normally operates in a semipermanent
location (e.g., a landing) which is relatively free of flammable vegetation,
the exhaust system is dangerous and is required to be spark arrester
68 – Timber Harvesting INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

equipped. The same recommendations for cleanliness and preventive
maintenance apply to this piece of mechanical equipment as to any other.
Some special areas where excessive friction can cause fires are the cable
drum brakes and the blocks or sheaves on the boom or tower. Fire
extinguishers and firefighting tools should be required on or close to the
yarder.
The cable, being made of steel and, except for a standing skyline, traveling
at high rates of speed, can create very high frictional heat in anything it rubs
against. On live green vegetation this will normally not cause a fire.
However, many wildfires have been observed to have been started by cables
rubbing against dead woody material, including standing snags, down logs
or trees, stumps, dead branches on live trees, etc. Therefore, it is of the
utmost importance that all moving cables be laid out and rigged in such a
way as to avoid contact with dead woody material at all times during setup
and use.
A special problem is presented by skylines and, to a lesser extent, high leads.
This is not from the potential for starting fires, but from the flying hazards to
firefighting aircraft. There have been several near misses by both fixed wing
planes and helicopters. Therefore, whenever a fire is known to be in progress
on the operating area or nearby, skylines should be lowered to the ground
and high lead systems allowed to go slack. Telescoping or hinged towers and
booms should also be lowered until it is certain that low-flying aircraft will
no longer be in the area.
Skyline cable systems having motorized carriages must be inspected for
spark arresters. There is not a great fire risk here, but as with any internal
combustion engine, it will require an arrester. Some carriages may be
equipped with manual/automatic fire suppression systems in the event of a
malfunction that causes the carriage to strike the ground. Since these
carriages will have a fuel supply (although not large) and a battery, the intent
of the fire suppression system is to activate upon impact and extinguish a
fire caused by sparks and fuel.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Timber Harvesting - 69

These extinguishing systems are not 100% dependable in carriage or sky
cars, but are an attempt by industry to prevent fires. When inspecting
carriages, the fire suppression systems are the same as are found in heavy
ground equipment.
The most fire-hazardous parts of a cable logging system are the blocks.
Depending on their position and purpose, these may be known as tail blocks,
haul-back blocks, corner blocks, etc. So many fires have started at blocks
that protection agencies have special regulations regarding them and many
timberland owners have special timber sale contract clauses about them.
Common causes of fires at cable blocks are frozen bearings, dead wood
jammed between the cable and the block and the block resting on
flammables. The most common requirements are for a clearing to mineral
soil for a radius of 15 feet in diameter from a point directly below the block
and the placing of firefighting equipment (usually a shovel and a backpump
or fire extinguisher) nearby.
VI. CHOKER SETTING
Although they seldom use machinery, choker setters, like fallers, limbers
and buckers, are often working alone, more or less isolated and difficult to
supervise. They work in areas where fires are most difficult to fight, away
from roads with logs and slash on the ground. In addition, they are generally
less skilled and tend to be younger than other woods workers. Some do not
realize the fire risk they represent.
Although many companies prohibit smoking on their operating areas and
various laws impose penalties for smoking at certain times and places or for
discarding burning tobacco or matches, the only effective enforcement in
isolated work situations is self-discipline.
70 – Timber Harvesting INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

VII. HELICOPTER LOGGING
The equipment used in helicopter logging is not inherently any more
dangerous from a fire standpoint than that used in any other logging system
and less than some. There are, however, two matters of some concern:
refueling and accessibility for fire suppression. Very large helicopters
needed to lift the heavy loads are powered by turbine engines and thus use
much less volatile fuel than gasoline engines. Still large quantities of the fuel
must be stored and transferred at heliports on or near the operating area.
Special precautions should, therefore, be taken to contain spills and to
combat petroleum fires. This is accomplished by burying or blocking tanks
and building dikes around the tanks.
Fire Extinguishers requirements for helicopter refueling:
A. Aircraft refuelers:
1. Must be equipped with at least 2 fire extinguishers having a
minimum rating of 20-B:C (U.F.C. Standard No. 10-1)
2. A fire extinguisher must be readily accessible from either side
of vehicle.
3. Portable fire extinguishers at aircraft motor vehicle fuel
dispensing stations shall be located such that pumps and
dispensers are not more than 75 feet from one such
extinguisher.
B. Open hose discharge capacity for fueling system less than 200 gallons
per minute:
At least 2 fire extinguishers minimum rating of 20-B:C (U.F.C.
Standard No. 10-l).
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Timber Harvesting - 71

C. Open hose discharge capacity for fueling system more than 200
gallons per minute but not over 350 gallons per minute:
At least one wheeled extinguisher having a minimum rating of 80-B:C
(U.F.C. Standard No.10-1) and having a minimum capacity of 125
lbs. Of agent shall be provided.
D. Open hose discharge capacity for fueling system more than 350
gallons per minute:
At least 2 wheeled extinguishers having a minimum rating of 80-B:C
(U.F.C. Standard No.10-1) and having a minimum capacity of 125
lbs. Of agent shall be provided.
The other fire problem associated with helicopter logging is accessibility for
fire suppression. Because of the economics involved, helicopter logging is
seldom used where cable, tractor or skidder yarding can be done. Therefore,
large portions of the operating area are accessible only by air or on foot and
the rugged terrain promotes rapid spread and difficult control of any fires.
Fallers, limbers, buckers, choker setters or rigging slingers are working in
semi­ isolation and with minimum supervision and communications. Their
capacity for initial attack fire control is limited. The only feasible means of
fire response by protection agencies is by helicopter; foot travel is much too
slow. A water tank and bucket may be required by some agencies and
private timber sales and be available at the landing.
Extreme caution must be exercised in approaching fires by helicopter under
such circumstances to avoid scattering the fire with the downdraft of the
rotor blades.
VIII. LANDINGS
It would be easy to consider log landings as fireproof as they are often
carved out of a hillside and/or located on bare soil. They are, however,
seldom any larger than necessary to perform the yarding and loading
72 – Timber Harvesting INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

operations and, thus, are closely surrounded by flammable vegetation. In
addition, they have a tendency to quickly accumulate trash and debris
including bark, limbs, paper, oil, etc. It is, therefore, necessary to maintain
suitable fire prevention and suppression defenses. These include properly
serviced spark arresters on all internal combustion engines, clearance of
flammables, fire tools, fire extinguishers, horn (or other alarm system),
smoking rules, etc. Landings are used by crews for lunch or warming fires.
Wildfires occur when these fires go unchecked. Landings are ideal locations
for weekend recreationists to park or camp. Patrol should be considered in
these areas.
IX. TIMBER COOPERATORS
In some areas large timber land owners and operators have formed fire
protection cooperatives or associations. The purpose of these cooperatives is
to implement and coordinate the use of industrial manpower and equipment
to fight wildland fire and to provide liaison between industrial and public
control forces. These groups provide a service of great value to both their
members and the public agencies at a very nominal cost of a few cents per
acre or per thousand board feet of timber harvested per year. Almost the
only expense is salary, transportation and communications for a seasonal
employee. In both cases, they hire a forester/firefighter. This individual
collects copies of all timber operator fire plans in his/her area, attends
industry/ agency meetings, assists in training and physical testing, assists
agency dispatch in ordering, assigning and demobilizing industry forces
during fires, etc.
The following is a typical duty statement for an Industry-Agency Liaison
position:
A. Pre-Season Activities
1. Attend annual spring industry-agency and air patrol meetings.
2. Promote and help conduct employee fire training and physical
testing.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Timber Harvesting - 73

B. Inventories
1. Prepare and maintain records of available equipment and
personnel.
2. Coordinate preseason equipment qualifying inspections.
3. Keep current on changes in operating areas.
4. Coordinate private aerial fire patrol with agency patrols.
C. Ordering Forces
Function as an integral part of agency dispatching system when
industry personnel and equipment are required for emergency
firefighting.
D. During Fire Operations
1. Fills Industry Liaison position in fire line organization.
2. Coordinates relief, equipment use, welfare, etc., for industry
forces.
3. Assists agency in rotating forces, obtaining replacements and
attempting to share the burden of the fire equally among
operators.
4. Inform or alert the agency and/or operator as to any potential
problems developing.
74 – Timber Harvesting INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

E. Demobilization
1. Assists agency in establishing priorities of release of industry
personnel and equipment.
2. Assists in coordinating transportation of industry personnel and
equipment.
Although this type of organization is particularly suited to large timber
landowners, it is adaptable to other large landowners (e.g., range) and large
construction or mining companies that expect to be in one location for a
relatively long time.
X. ON-SITE FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
As set forth in the section on Fire Plans, a rather comprehensive set of
standards for provision of firefighting equipment on timber operating areas
has been worked out over a period of years. Although minor differences
exist between regulations of various agencies and between different timber
sale contracts.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Timber Harvesting - 75

Notes
76 – Notes INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

11.0 Construction and Surface Mining
Construction and surface mining are treated together because, although each has
certain operations and equipment unique to itself, they generally involve similar
operations (e.g., earth moving, drilling and blasting) and equipment (e.g.,
bulldozers, loaders and air compressors). Construction includes building dams,
highways, railroads, pipelines power lines, etc., as well as grading for real estate
developments, realigning or widening highways, etc. Surface mining includes rock
and stone quarries, sand and gravel pits, cement quarries, as well as mines for
specific ores such as iron, coal, borax, diatomaceous earth, etc.
The time of greatest fire danger in any of these activities is during the pioneering
or right-of-way clearing phase. At this time, people and machines are working in
and among vegetative fuels which may be highly flammable during a major
portion of the year.
When earth is moved, much of the operation takes place on bare mineral soil or
rock. However, even then fire prevention activities and fire suppression readiness
cannot be ignored. There is always a fringe or border zone where vegetation meets
the working area and there are always access routes. The latter are particularly
important because a major portion of wildland fires associated with construction
and mining start along such access routes from motor vehicles and/or their
operators.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Construction and Surface Mining - 77

I. EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT
Earth moving equipment (e.g., bulldozers, scrapers, end loaders and
trenchers) comprises the majority of construction and surface mining
equipment and also the bulk of the fire risk in these activities. This section
applies equally, however, to all other mobile equipment used in these
industries (e.g., pavement spreaders and rollers, fork lifts, sidebooms and
compactors). All these types of equipment are powered by internal
combustion engines and are, therefore, required to be fitted with a properly
functioning spark arrester when operating on forest, brush or grass-covered
land.
"Operating on" has been interpreted as meaning either actually on and over
these vegetative fuels or in proximity thereto. Almost any place on a
highway, power line or pipeline right-of-way would be included as would all
areas within 50 to 100 feet inside the perimeter of open pit mines or quarries
or dam site clearings or anywhere outside such perimeters.
A "properly functioning spark arrester" normally includes a turbocharger,
providing none of the exhaust gases are allowed to bypass the impeller
blades. If the arrester is of the common trap type, it is only "properly
functioning" if the carbon trap is empty enough to actually trap carbon
particles. The frequency of cleaning the trap to meet this standard will vary
with type and condition of engines and type and amount of use. Generally,
however, spark arrester traps should be emptied no less often than once a
week. A well-tuned engine operating continuously at or near full power will
usually produce the fewest exhaust carbon particles. An engine that is in
poor condition and is allowed to idle for an appreciable time will, when
revved up, produce large quantities of carbon particles. Most equipment is
operated and maintained somewhere between these two extremes.
The escape of carbon particles out of the top of the stack is the most frequent
source of wildland fire from the use of these machines; although other parts
of the exhaust system can, and sometimes do, provide ignition sources.
These primarily include leaks and accumulations of flammable debris.
78 – Construction and Surface Mining INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

During any routine maintenance, the entire exhaust system from manifold to
end of stack should be inspected for cracks, burned out holes, missing bolts,
broken gaskets, etc., and for accumulations of debris. Appropriate
corrections must be made. A leaking exhaust system may be in violation of
spark arrester laws and regulations.
Other sources of ignition from these machines include sparks from blades or
tracks scraping against rocks, overheated brakes on wheeled equipment,
friction from worn or misaligned belts and drive chains and burned out
bearings or brushings. The first of these is hard to prevent, but operators
should be aware that sparks can, and do, fly from rock/ metal contact and
they should be prepared and equipped to take immediate suppression action.
The others result primarily from inadequate maintenance and the prevention
indicated is fairly obvious.
A common fuel bed, which presents a fire hazard to both the machine and
the surrounding vegetation, is accumulated debris in the belly pan. Such
debris, even though often including soil, is usually soaked with oil and,
therefore, even more flammable than when in its natural state. Besides being
a fire hazard, it also restricts air flow around the crankcase and causes
overheating of lubricating oil. Two remedies are available: screening the
debris out of the engine compartment and washing or blowing the debris out
during servicing and maintenance. This trash problem has been so serious in
the logging industry that all major manufacturers now equip their new
logging machines with screens or grates to completely enclose the engine
compartment. In the interest of fire safety, all owners and operators in any
type of service should have their machines similarly equipped.
All such equipment has an electrical system, either for direct starting or for
ignition on a gasoline starting motor. These electrical systems occasionally
develop shorts and electric arcing which often ignites a fire. It has been
suggested that all machines, both new and old, be equipped with a
conveniently located master switch by which the operator can instantly open
the circuit to stop any arcing. An alternative would be an automatic overload
circuit breaker.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Construction and Surface Mining - 79

All construction equipment, whether tracked or wheeled, and whether for
highway or non-highway use, should be equipped with a shovel and a fire
extinguisher. Both should be mounted so as to be readily available to the
operator in case of fire, not locked away in a compartment or trunk. The
shovel should be long-handled and round­pointed. The extinguisher should
be multipurpose (ABC), four pounds or larger. Some of the large and
expensive machines may be equipped with manual/automatic fire
suppression systems.
II. STATIONARY AND PORTABLE EQUIPMENT
Under this heading is discussed equipment which may be mounted on
wheels, tracks or skids, is usually not self-propelled and is normally operated
in a given location for an appreciable time, from a few hours to several
months. Such equipment can be highly varied but is typified by air
compressors, chippers, generators, derricks or cranes (other than electric),
etc.
As with all internal combustion engine-powered equipment, the greatest fire
danger comes from the exhaust system. The problems and their solutions for
this type of equipment are somewhat different than for mobile equipment. It
is often governed to run at a steady speed, but not necessarily at a steady
load. Being in a fixed location, grass can grow up under and around it and
leaves and needles can blow against it even though it may have been placed
on bare ground at the outset. This machinery would usually be in the way if
placed directly in the operating area.
Over the years, various laws, ordinances and regulations have been adopted
regarding such equipment. They should require the same type of exhaust
spark arresters as for mobile equipment, a clearance of all flammable
materials of at least l 0 feet in all directions from the machine and the
provision of a shovel and a backpack pump water fire extinguisher in the
immediate area. It is good fire safe practice to inspect the exhaust system on
these machines periodically for leaks as discussed in "Earth Moving
Equipment."
80 – Construction and Surface Mining INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

III. TRENCHING EQUIPMENT
A modern piece of equipment being used to trench through rock is a rock
saw. This piece of equipment requires a 10 foot clearance like any other
grinding equipment. Due to the terrain that this equipment is used in, often a
10 foot clearance is unattainable. In this case, a water tender of 2000 gallons
may be required to be on site and saturate the area prior to operating.
IV. SMALL MULTIPOSITION ENGINES
These engines power all types of hand held power equipment, including
chain or rotary saws, posthole diggers, weed cutters, compactors, etc. These
engines must be equipped with spark arresters like all other internal
combustion engines used on forest, brush or grass-covered land. The
retention or attrition arresters and turbochargers commonly used on larger
engines are too bulky and heavy for these hand held engines. Therefore, they
are commonly fitted with screen-type spark arresters. If the mesh is fine
enough to meet legal standards (.023 in.), screen arresters work quite well
when both they and the engine are new. Worn engines produce more carbon
than new ones; therefore, they tend to clog the screen rather rapidly. The
wire used to make the screen, though usually high carbon steel, is
necessarily so fine that it will burn out under continuous heavy use. Thus, in
order to avoid either excessive back pressure or the escape of carbon
particles, these screen arresters require frequent inspection and servicing.
They should be inspected for holes at each refueling and cleaned daily.
Probably the most hazardous time in the use of these small engines is during
refueling. Since they are built very compactly and most all use gasoline for
fuel, the proximity of the gas tank filler opening to the exhaust outlet and
other very hot engine parts makes it easy to spill gasoline in a place where it
will burst into flame. Therefore, the same laws and rules are applicable to all
these machines as to chain saws discussed under "Timber Harvesting."
Basically, these laws and rules include having firefighting equipment readily
at hand, refueling only in an area cleared to mineral earth for at least
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Construction and Surface Mining - 81

10 feet in all directions and, when restarting the engine, to move it away
from any fumes and turn it so the exhaust points away from the refueling
location.
Another source of fire from these machines is the cutting edge, or other
rapidly moving metal part, striking a rock and causing a spark. This has been
a fairly frequent occurrence with rotary mowers used to clear dry grass and
weeds. It can happen with any of the types of machines discussed here.
Whether a fire starts from this cause, from exhaust sparks or from fuel
spillage during refueling, it is imperative that the operator be prepared to
immediately shut down the machine and commence fighting the fire. This is
why it is important to have the required firefighting tools kept within 25 feet
of operation and refueling.
V. CRUSHERS AND PAVEMENT PLANTS
These plants are usually erected on large areas of bare soil, sand or rock and
are thus not, in themselves, wildland fire risks. The greatest source of fire
danger around the plants is the people and other machines that work in and
around them; the most frequent location of fire starts is along the access
routes. People smoke and sometimes build lunch or warming fires. Motor
vehicles and other mobile equipment emit exhaust sparks, have electric
shorts, develop fuel leaks, etc. Thus, even though the plants themselves are
not great fire risks, their existence creates an increased fire risk in the area
and warrants extra fire prevention effort.
VI. SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT
For a more complete treatment of this subject, please refer to the chapter on
"Maintenance, Repair and Servicing." The most important points to
remember are: whenever possible bring equipment to a service area which is
free of flammables; if the machine cannot be moved, clear all flammables to
mineral soil for at least 10 feet in all directions from it; in any case always
have firefighting equipment available nearby (i.e., within 25 feet); and have
spark arresters on all internal combustion engines.
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VII. TRAINING
Construction and mining employees are less likely to have had previous
training and experience in fighting wildland fire than loggers. Therefore, for
their own protection, as well as their employer's, it is important that they be
given at least minimum training in wildland fire control.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Construction and Surface Mining - 83

Notes
84 – Notes INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

12.0 Well Drilling and Operating
Fires resulting from well drilling or operation can cause considerable damage and
are very difficult to suppress. The greatest hazard is associated with petroleum and
gas wells because of the expected presence of methane and/or hydrogen sulfide
gas, both highly flammable. Other deep drilling (e.g., geothermal or water) can
also produce such flammable gases.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Well Drilling and Operating- 85

I. REQUIREMENTS
Laws can apply to drilling rigs as any other machine operated on forest-
covered, brush-covered or grass-covered land (i.e., all internal combustion
engines, except muffler-equipped highway licensed vehicles, should be
equipped with an effective spark arrester; in addition, all such machines
operating in a fixed location must have a clearing of all flammable materials
of at least 10 feet in all directions). For oil and gas drilling, this is hardly
enough. Consequently, many local ordinances and company rules call for
much more.
Among the more common requirements are water-cooled exhaust systems,
explosion-proof lights, smoking prohibition, provision of fire extinguishers,
additional clearance of flammables, "fire watch" during welding and cutting
or welding only under special short-term permit.
II. RISK
Historically, the greatest wildland fire risk associated with well drilling has
been welding and grinding. If there is any possibility of the presence of
methane, hydrogen sulfide or any other flammable gas, no welding should
be done within 50 feet of the wellhead. In any event, no welding should be
done without first clearing all flammable vegetation down to mineral soil for
a radius of at least 10 feet from the location where the welding is to be done
and having a five-gallon backpump and a shovel within 25 feet of the
operation.
A fire problem associated with the operation of wells is the direct ignition of
dry grass or leaves by high temperatures from steam lines laid on the surface
of the ground. These pipes may be either for recharging oil wells or for
collecting geothermal steam for a power plant. Any of three solutions seems
to be satisfactory: to bury the pipe, to insulate it or to treat the soil for a foot
or two on each side of it with a proper herbicide or soil sterilant.
86 – Well Drilling and Operating INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

13.0 Commercial Transportation and Storage
Commercial transportation, largely by truck, is a large industry in many
wildland areas. Supplies and consumer products are delivered, raw materials
taken to processing plants and finished products hauled to markets. Most of
the commodities represent little or no fire hazard; some are very dangerous.
The vehicles used represent one of the highest fire risks present in the
wildlands (see the chapter on Motor Vehicle Operation and Maintenance).
Some of the operators of the vehicles are also serious fire risks (i.e., smoking
and driving habits, lack of knowledge regarding cargoes and firefighting,
etc.). Associated with much of the transportation activity are storage and
distribution facilities (e.g., warehouse, bulk petroleum plants, explosives
magazines, or LPG distributors). Some of the products involved and their
chemical or physical properties related to fire are unknown to local
firefighters. Often, bills of lading do not provide adequate information to
either the driver or firefighters about the nature of the cargo.
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Commercial Transportation and Storage - 87

I. HAZARDS
There are three major kinds of hazards to be aware of and protected against:
violent rupture potential, explosive and toxic. The smoke or fumes of any of
these should be avoided or protected against with a self-contained breathing
apparatus and/or protective clothing. Loads containing more than 100
pounds of a hazardous material (some types 1000 pounds) are required to be
identified with placards. The placards are diamond-shaped and of various
colors. The categories are: explosives, gases (flammable and non-
flammable), flammable liquids (and combustible liquids [US]), flammable
solids, oxidizers, and organic peroxides, toxic (poison) materials and
infectious substances, radioactive materials, corrosives, and miscellaneous
dangerous goods.
A. All flammable gases have violent rupture potential (VRP). Some are
also toxic (e.g., carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide and vinyl
chloride). Flammable gases commonly transported in wildland areas
include liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), propane and vinyl chloride.
Any of them will usually ignite if a rupture or serious leak in the
container occurs. If not, it will form a gas cloud that is easily ignited.
The proper fire suppression technique is to stop the flow of gas by
closing a valve. If this not possible, allow the gas to completely burn
while keeping the container cool with water. Tanks containing
flammable gases that are exposed to intense heat are likely to rupture
violently and engulf the immediate area in a large fireball. When tanks
are thus exposed, consider initial downwind evacuation for at least
one-half mile.
The most fire-hazardous operation with LPG is during and
immediately following transfer from one tank to another. Transfers
occur at bulk plants, both incoming and outgoing, and at points of use,
residential and commercial. This operation takes place thousands of
times each day because LPG is so widely used outside of metropolitan
areas served by natural gas. Leaks can happen from cracked, broken
or poorly connected fittings, ruptured hoses and human error,
88 – Commercial Transportation and Storage INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE

such as failing to disconnect before driving away. Ignitions can occur
from any of a number of sources, which may or may not be associated
with the transfer operation itself since escaping gas will travel and
often find a heat source.
B. Another fire hazard with LPG is the threat of overheating and rupture
of containers, pipes and fittings by wildfires. All LPG containers,
whether at bulk plants or at points of use, should be well protected
from this danger by adequate clearance or dry grass, brush and
unlimbed trees for at least 10 feet in all directions. They should also
be separated from each other and from buildings depending on their
size: less than 100 gallons is five feet, 100-500 gallons is 10 feet, 500-
1200 gallons is 25 feet and over 1200 gallons is 50 feet.
II. HAZARD CHARACTERISTICS
A. There are three groups of explosives: primary or initiating high
explosives, secondary high explosives and low explosives. Primary or
initiating high explosives are easily detonated by applying small
amounts of heat, mechanical shock or pressure. Their chief function is
to initiate detonations in secondary high explosives. The major
ingredients in primary explosives include, but are not limited to, lead
azide, lead styphnate, and mercury fulminate. Electric blasting caps
and detonating cord delay connectors are both examples of primary
high explosives.
B. Poisons are also divided into two categories, A and B. All are very
toxic and many have VRP. Poisons A are gases and are extremely
toxic. They must be avoided by all personnel except specialists with
protective clothing and breathing apparatus. If leaking, personnel
should be evacuated as far as necessary to avoid any contact.
Examples of these materials include nitric oxide, parathion gas (VRP),
organic phosphates and phosgene (VRP). Poisons B are mostly liquids
or solids. Continued contact, inhalation or ingestion can cause
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS FIRE PREVENTION GUIDE Commercial Transportation and Storage - 89

illness or death. Try to prevent spread by constructing dikes, berms or
dams. Examples include cyanide (dry), parathion (liquid or dry),
tetraethyl lead (VRP) and chlorine (VRP).
C. Flammable liquids (placarded "Flammable") are all toxic and most
have VRP. They give off flammable vapors when spilled which will
ignite upon contact with an open flame, spark or hot surface. The
vapors are usually heavier that air and will flow downhill and into
depressions. Common examples are gasoline, benzene, ether, alcohol
and vinyl acetate. When containers are involved in a fire, personnel
should be evacuated one-half mile. All sources of ignition (e.g.,
smoking, internal combustion engines or welding) should be
eliminated from the area where the vapors are expected to flow.
D. Nonflammable gases all have VRP and many are toxic. Many also
exclude oxygen and therefore can cause asphyxiation. Gas clouds are
not always visible and some have no odor. If containers are exposed
to intense heat, personnel should be evacuated for one-half mile.
Examples include anhydrous ammonia, hydrogen chloride and nitrous
oxide. Chlorine is classed as both a Poison and Nonflammable Gas
and is both toxic and VRP.
E. Flammable solids can cause fires by self-ignition or spontaneous
combustion if exposed to proper conditions (e.g., getting wet, being
crushed and contact with corrosives). Some have VRP. The most
dangerous to firefighters are those bearing a white crossed-out W on a
blue triangle in the upper portion of the placard. This symbol means
"dangerous when wet." Avoid use of water in fire suppression
operations near these materials. Examples include calcium carbide,
magnesium, potassium, and sodium.
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F. Oxidizers release oxygen when heated and, thus, greatly stimulate
combustion of other fuels. All have VRP. Some, if mixed with
petroleum products, become explosive (e.g., ammonium nitrate). If
these materials become involved in fires, personnel should be
evacuated for one-half mile. Examples include hydrogen peroxide,
calcium chlorate, potassium perchlorate and urea peroxide.
G. Corrosives are all toxic. Contact with any of them can cause serious
eye, skin or respiratory injury. Their fumes are usually just as toxic as
the liquid and must be avoided by unprotected personnel. Since
mixing with other chemicals can cause fire or explosion, spills should
be contained as quickly as possible. Examples include hydrochloric
acid, sulfuric acid and caustic soda.
H. Combustible liquids (placarded "Combustible") can burn when
heated. If spilled, they will extend and complicate an existing fire
(e.g., truck wreck). Examples include diesel fuel, antifreeze
compound and cut-back asphalt.
I. Radioactive materials are all toxic. If a spill occurs, personnel should
be evacuated for at least 330 feet and in case of fire, at least 1000 feet.
All persounel should evacuated for one-quarter mile until the area is
monitored and declared safe by specialists. If smoke clouds drift,
personnel should be kept well clear of the smoke.
J. All firefighters, and anyone involved in transporting any of these
hazardous materials, should learn all they can about them and keep
themselves continuously updated. New materials are constantly being
developed for agriculture and industry, many of which are hazardous
in one way or another. Some, although common, present hazards in
unusual ways that are known to only a few. One of these is chloral
hydrate, which is used in large quantities by paper mills. It is usually
transported as a liquid, which is relatively inert, though toxic.
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However, when it is spiked, as in a wreck, it dries into a crystalline
form, which is extremely flammable when exposed to abrasion. The
clothing of firefighters and plant workers has been known to burst into
flames from the mere act of walking after having chloral hydrate
spiked on it and then drying out. Leather-soled shoes have produced
similar results. Emergency information concerning specific materials
can be obtained by telephoning Chemtrec.
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14.0 Product Processing and Handling
Most industrial operations in the wildlands, other than construction, produce some
product, which requires processing, storage and handling. These operations not
only create some fire risks themselves, but often produce conditions which make
fire suppression very difficult. Since, historically, the greatest fire problems in this
category have been related to forest products, the bulk of this section is devoted to
them, with minor sections on other products.
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I. TIMBER PROCESSING
Under this general heading will be included all types of timber processing
plants, except paper or particleboard plants which use chips or other
preprocessed raw materials: permanent sawmills, portable sawmills, veneer
plants, shingle mills, re-manufacturing plants, molding mills, planning mills,
etc. Since the waste products in these mills are small cellulosic materials
(e.g., sawdust, shavings, trimmings, edgings) and often very dry, they are
highly flammable. Thus, effective fire prevention and suppression measures
are a must to protect the large investment involved. This is particularly true
when fire-killed or insect-killed salvage lumber is being processed.
Cleanliness is the most important fire prevention measure for sawmills. Most
mills have conveyor and vacuum systems to remove waste materials, but
they are never 100% effective. This is particularly true of conveyors, which
have a tendency to jam and overflow. Regular daily sweeping and hard pick
up are required to avoid accumulations of waste in dangerous places.
Smoking is prohibited in most sawmills. This is a valuable rule, which
should be enforced in all mills, on visitors as well as employees. Since the
former are much harder to control than the latter, their access should be
restricted to areas where fire hazards are minimal.
Mills and yards should be laid out so that adequate clearances are provided
for fire equipment to work. Their designs should incorporate enough space
to avoid ignition caused by radiated heat of one building, lumber stack or log
deck from another or from surrounding wildland. The National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) recommends 100 feet from vegetation and a
minimum of 30 feet between buildings, piles and decks.
Most modern mills are equipped with automatic fire sprinklers, fire
standpipes and hydrants, hose and nozzles, fire extinguishers, etc. All mills
should have these protection devices. Also it is very important that all
employees, including new ones, be trained in their use and in
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the fire defense roles which may be assigned to them. Formation of a
company fire brigade handles this training most effectively.
In addition to the built-in fire protection discussed above, a mill should be
required to have a box or cache of wildland firefighting tools sufficient to
equip 50% of the employees. Employees should have training in the
effective use of these tools.
Since the conversion or replacement of most steam-powered sawmills to
electric power, vast quantities of waste material have required disposal. For
many years, this was done primarily by burning either in open pits or in
teepee burners. This was a highly hazardous practice, which caused so many
fires that special fire laws may have been passed to regulate it. The
restrictions were later tightened under air pollution control laws and
regulations causing some operations to resort to land fills. In this activity,
both water pollution and spontaneous combustion problems were
encountered. Much of the waste is now processed into by-products (e.g.,
paper chips, synthetic fireplace logs and briquettes) and some are used as
direct boiler fuel on the mill site, often for cogeneration of electric power.
Portable sawmills present special fire problems, in addition to those
discussed above. By their very nature, they do not have the financial
resources of large permanent mills. Therefore, they seldom have any built-in
fire protection systems and cannot afford a legal waste burner. They rarely
have any by-product processing ability and, thus, create a much higher
proportion of flammable waste that do permanent mills. Internal combustion
engines, either in direct drive or as a motor­ generator set, power most
portable mills. These engines are normally located at the mill site where
their exhaust systems and the prevalent sawdust create a potential explosive
mixture. Such mills are a serious fire hazard, both to themselves and to the
surrounding country. As a minimum, they should be surrounded by a 30-foot
wide firebreak. They should be kept as clean as possible while operating and
the waste pile should be removed or burned during the following winter.
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II. PORTABLE PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
In the world of timber harvesting, methods of operation are rapidly
changing. More and more portable processing equipment is being used to
process the forest products at the site where obtained. This has created new
fire risks and created problems that there is no law that defines how to
handle the fire risk.
One such risk which has been created is the process of chipping the material
at the location obtained. If the operation is for clean chips for pulp, large
piles of by product will be generated. These piles have been left behind for
other processors to come in and further chip the remains for hog fuel. These
piles left behind, which can exceed ten feet in height and 100 feet in length,
can ignite through spontaneous combustion.
III. III. LOG DECKS
Log decks are to be found in three places: landings, transfer points and mill
yards. Decks on landings are relatively small, continually rotated and have
equipment immediately available to break them up in case of fire. They,
therefore, pose only a minor fire problem.
Log decks at transfer points and in mill yards commonly contain several
million board feet and may not be moved for months at a time. Unless
special measures are taken they present a very serious fire problem. The
most basic precaution is to keep the piles small enough and with enough
separation that in case one does catch on fire the fire can be confined to that
pile and not consume the entire yard. According to National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) Pamphlet 46 (1996), individual piles should never
exceed 30 feet in width, 20 feet height and 500 feet in length.
Whenever an adequate water supply is available, log decks should be kept
continuously wet. The moisture not only promotes fire protection, but
retards blue stain and other deterioration and down-grading. If the sprinkler
system is properly designed with adequate drainage back into a sump
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for recirculation, the amount of water needed is greatly reduced. Still, some
loss to evaporation must be expected.
Another fire safety measure for log decks is the provision of fire mains,
hydrants, hose and nozzles. The initial investment for this is very high and
can usually only be justified in mill yards. For basic fire protection, a
hydrant system must be capable of supplying at least four (4) 21/2" hose
streams simultaneously, 1000 GPM minimum, while maintaining a residual
pressure in the fire protection system where large scale firefighting
operations may be expected, larger water supplies with adequate mains are
needed.
IV. OUTSIDE STORAGE OF WOOD CHIPS AND HOG MATERIAL
This subject is very well covered in NFPA Recommended Practice No. 46
(1996). It is recommended that anyone involved in operating or protecting
such facilities become thoroughly acquainted with that publication. A few
items not covered in NFPA No. 46 will be discussed here.
The practices recommended in NFPA No. 46 for chips generally apply to
sawdust as well. Some differences, however, apply to stored bark chips.
Bark chips, once piled, have a tendency to lock in place. They do not flow
into conveyors as easily as paper chips or sawdust. Therefore, the common
method of moving them out of storage is with end loaders. In the scooping
operation of the loaders, a vertical, or sometimes overhanging, wall of chips
often results. Oxygen then can get into the top center of the pile, and, on
several occasions, has been observed to spontaneously ignite. The best
protection against this phenomenon is to keep the vertical or overhanging
wall from forming by continually pushing bark from the top of the pile down
to the scooping area with a bulldozer or similar machine.
Not enough emphasis can be placed on close working relationships between
the operator of any chip, sawdust or bark storage facility and the public fire
protection agency in the area. Fire in such piles is extremely expensive
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to extinguish and results in high product loss. If fires escape additional
liability is incurred. It is always cheaper to prevent the fires that to
experience them. However, once a fire exists, quick suppression, while the
fire is still very small, is the cheapest method. The local fire chief, ranger or
fire marshal can help with either of these goals.
V. ORE AND AGGREGATE PLANTS
The products of ore and aggregate plants are generally nonflammable.
Therefore, the fire problems involved mostly relate to the structure and
machinery and basically are no different from those of any other industrial
plant. An exception is that they are often in isolated or remote locations
where public fire suppression forces are unavailable or not suited to
structural protection. A good built-in fire protection system and a company
fire brigade become very important. Assistance in these matters can be
obtained from local fire authorities, insurance companies and consulting fire
protection engineers.
VI. OIL AND GAS
Almost all processing and storage of petroleum and natural gas is done at
locations remote from the producing wells and usually outside of forest and
watershed areas. Storage and transportation of consumer products is
discussed in the section on "Commercial Transportation and Storage." Fire
safety in pumping plants is so critical to personnel and capital safety, that it
is adequately provided for in governmental regulations, insurance company
requirements and operating company rules. Thus, the fire threat to wildlands
is minimal.
VII. ELECTRICAL POWER USE
Almost all modern industrial plants, wherever located, are powered by
electricity. In many respects, this type of power is more fire safe than steam
or internal combustion, providing adequate standards are employed in
construction and maintenance. Even if not required by local ordinance, use
of one of the recognized electrical codes is recommended.
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